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Voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) is a global strategy for reducing female-to-male sexual transmission of HIV. Women whose partners are circumcised benefit from a reduced risk of contracting other sexually transmitted diseases; making their role in VMMC critical. The objective of our study was to identify and synthesize existing evidence related to women's role in promoting VMMC from a regional perspective. The review and selection process were guided by the Problem; Intervention; Comparison and Outcome (PICO) model, which facilitated the exclusion of irrelevant studies. The search strategy search terms for the PICO components with synonyms, related terms and specialist terms were harvested from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)© and Embase©. The inclusion criteria were published studies in English and relevant to women's role in VMMC for the prevention of HIV between 2007 and 2020. Four key categories emerged from the literature as follows: role of women, VMMC uptake, barriers and facilitators of VMMC. The majority of the studies concur on the importance of involving women in VMMC uptake as they have the power to negotiate with their male partners through communication and can persuade men to be circumcised, making it a joint decision. The benefits of VMMC in improving sexual pleasure and attractiveness of the penis seemed to positively convince women to influence and educate men to improve the uptake of VMMC. Women are motivated to convince men to undergo male circumcision (MC) because of the benefits associated with them such as reduction of HIV transmission and cervical cancer. There are, however, limited studies focusing on women's involvement in VMMC; hence, more research to explore this area is recommended.
Subject(s)
Humans , Female , Social Support , HIV Infections , Health Education , Circumcision, Male , Disease Transmission, Infectious , Gender RoleABSTRACT
Background: Safe Male Circumcision (SMC)[1] has been widely recommended by WHO as part of a comprehensive HIV prevention strategy. However, literature pertaining to SMC amongst adolescents with a disability, and the deaf community in particular, is almost non-existent. This study sought to establish SMC prevalence, knowledge, attitude and post circumcision behaviour among adolescents with deafness in Uganda.Methods: The study was cross-sectional, used a mixed-methods approach and recruited 447 participants. 363 questionnaires were administered to adolescents of age 15 - 24 years (192 males and 171 females) from three study sites. We assessed socio-demographic variables, circumcision status, post circumcision behaviour, attitude and knowledge levels towards SMC. Qualitative data was also collected from 84 participants (m=46, f=38) using focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Quantitative data were analysed using Stata software while qualitative was thematically analysed.Results: A total of 60.9% male adolescents with deafness self-reported to be circumcised. Both male and female participants reported SMC information to be highly inaccessible (84%). Only 27.8% study participants knew about the partial protective effect of SMC against HIV, 51.8% were uncertain, while 26% thought that SMC provided full protection. Both male and female respondents had a positive attitude towards SMC (68.3%) and females were more knowledgeable (50.3%) about the partial preventive effect of SMC against HIV transmission and timeframe for the resumption of sexual activity compared to males (30.2%). Linkages were noted between SMC, social networks and key sociodemographic characteristics like ethnicity, religion and education level.Conclusion: Despite a 60.9% prevalence and general positive attitude towards SMC, study findings showed limited service access and substantial knowledge gaps in SMC efficacy, also related to high-risk behaviour after circumcision. This can largely be explained by limited targeting by HIV prevention programmes among this (deaf) category of adolescents, related barriers associated with vulnerability arising from their disability (deafness) and developmental stage (adolescence). Key actors in HIV prevention efforts should demonstrate cognizance of heightened risk among vulnerable adolescent categories through more inclusive interventions to address prevailing knowledge and service gaps. [1] This study was conducted between 2015-2016 when the commonly used term was Safe Male Circumcision (SMC) and not Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision (VMMC) as its popularly being packaged now. This manuscript has stuck to the originally used SMC acronym.
ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT Objective: to compare the postoperative esthetic and healing aspects of postectomy performed by different surgical techniques, based on the evaluation of different specialty expert professionals. Methods: prospective and randomized clinical trial enrolling 149 preschool children with a medical indication for circumcision, divided into three groups: postectomy with the hemostatic device Plastibell® (PB group), conventional technique (CV group) and conventional with subcuticular stitches (SC group). Pictures were taken from patients at pre-defined angles on the 30th and 60th postoperative days. Photos were evaluated by three specialists (dermatologist, pediatrician and plastic surgeon), who assigned scores from 1 to 5 regarding the esthetic and healing features at each moment. Grades 4 or 5 from all specialists characterized "best result". Data were analysed to compare the used surgical techniques, the judgments from specialties and postoperative complications. Results: most of the patients obtained the "best result" regarding healing (70%) and esthetics (56%). The final overall result showed the PB group as the best for healing (p=0.028) and the SC group as the best for esthetics (p=0.002). For the dermatologist, on the 60th postoperative day, the CV group presented the worst aesthetic result, whereas for the pediatrician and the plastic surgeon, the PB group presented the best healing result and the SC group had the best esthetic result. There was no difference between the groups regarding the presence of complications. Conclusion: the most common surgical techniques used to perform postectomy in children were differently assessed regarding healing and esthetic features by distinct medical professionals. The analysis of these two parameters among experts from related areas diverged among them and over time.
RESUMO Objetivo: analisar os aspectos estético e cicatricial pós-operatórios (PO) de pacientes submetidos a postectomia por diferentes técnicas cirúrgicas a partir da avaliação de profissionais experientes de áreas afins. Método: ensaio clínico prospectivo e randomizado, incluindo 149 meninos em idade pré-escolar com indicação médica de postectomia, divididos em três grupos: postectomia com dispositivo hemostático Plastibell® (grupo PB), técnica convencional (grupo CV) e convencional com pontos subcuticulares (grupo SC). Os pacientes foram fotografados em ângulos predefinidos no 30º e 60º dias de PO e as fotos avaliadas por três especialistas (dermatologista, pediatra e cirurgião plástico) que atribuíram notas entre 1 e 5, quanto aos aspectos estético e cicatricial em cada momento. Notas 4 ou 5 de todos os especialistas caracterizaram o "melhor resultado". Os dados foram submetidos à análise estatística para comparar as técnicas cirúrgicas, as avaliações dos especialistas e as complicações pós-operatórias. Resultados: a maioria dos pacientes obteve "melhor resultado" cicatricial (70%) e estético (56%). O resultado geral final apontou o grupo PB como superior quanto à cicatrização (p=0,028) e o grupo SC quanto ao aspecto estético (p=0,002). Para o dermatologista, na segunda avaliação, o grupo CV apresentou o pior resultado estético, enquanto para o pediatra e o cirurgião plástico, o grupo PB apresentou o melhor resultado cicatricial e o grupo SC o melhor resultado estético. Não houve diferença entre os grupos quanto à presença de complicações. Conclusão: as técnicas cirúrgicas mais empregadas para realizar postectomia em crianças foram avaliadas quanto aos resultados cicatricial e estético de distintas maneiras. A análise desses dois parâmetros entre especialistas de áreas afins divergiu entre eles e ao longo do tempo.
Subject(s)
Humans , Male , Child, Preschool , Child , Phimosis/surgery , Circumcision, Male/methods , Penis/pathology , Phimosis/pathology , Postoperative Complications , Postoperative Period , Wound Healing , Prospective Studies , Suture Techniques , Circumcision, Male/adverse effects , Circumcision, Male/instrumentation , Treatment Outcome , Esthetics , Intraoperative ComplicationsABSTRACT
To assess safety of the no-flip ShangRing male circumcision technique and to determine clinical course and safety of spontaneous detachment (i.e., allowing the device to fall off), we conducted a case series of no-flip ShangRing circumcision combined with a randomized controlled trial of removal 7 days postcircumcision versus spontaneous detachment at two health facilities in Kenya. The primary outcome was the safety of the no-flip technique based on moderate and severe adverse events (AEs) during the procedure and through 42-day follow-up. A main secondary outcome was clinical course and safety of spontaneous detachment. Two hundred and thirty males 10 years and older underwent no-flip circumcision; 114 randomized to 7-day removal and 116 to spontaneous detachment. All circumcisions were successfully completed. Overall 5.3% (6/114) of participants in the 7-day group and 1.7% (2/116) in the spontaneous group had an AE; with no differences when compared to the 3% AE rate in historical data from African studies using the original flip technique (P = 0.07 and P = 0.79, respectively). Overall 72.4% (84/116) of participants in the spontaneous group wore the ShangRing until it detached. Among the remaining (27.6%; 32/116), the ring was removed, primarily at the participants' request, due to pain or discomfort. There was no difference in AE rates (P = 0.169), visit day declared healed (P = 0.324), or satisfaction (P = 0.371) between randomization groups. The median time to detachment was 14.0 (IQR: 7-21, range: 5-35) days. The no-flip technique and spontaneous detachment are safe, effective, and acceptable to boys and men 10 years and older. Phimosis and penile adhesions do not limit successful ShangRing circumcision with the no-flip technique.
Subject(s)
Adolescent , Adult , Child , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Young Adult , Circumcision, Male/methods , Kenya , Patient Satisfaction , Treatment Outcome , Wound HealingABSTRACT
To assess safety of the no-flip ShangRing male circumcision technique and to determine clinical course and safety of spontaneous detachment (i.e., allowing the device to fall off), we conducted a case series of no-flip ShangRing circumcision combined with a randomized controlled trial of removal 7 days postcircumcision versus spontaneous detachment at two health facilities in Kenya. The primary outcome was the safety of the no-flip technique based on moderate and severe adverse events (AEs) during the procedure and through 42-day follow-up. A main secondary outcome was clinical course and safety of spontaneous detachment. Two hundred and thirty males 10 years and older underwent no-flip circumcision; 114 randomized to 7-day removal and 116 to spontaneous detachment. All circumcisions were successfully completed. Overall 5.3% (6/114) of participants in the 7-day group and 1.7% (2/116) in the spontaneous group had an AE; with no differences when compared to the 3% AE rate in historical data from African studies using the original flip technique (P = 0.07 and P = 0.79, respectively). Overall 72.4% (84/116) of participants in the spontaneous group wore the ShangRing until it detached. Among the remaining (27.6%; 32/116), the ring was removed, primarily at the participants' request, due to pain or discomfort. There was no difference in AE rates (P = 0.169), visit day declared healed (P = 0.324), or satisfaction (P = 0.371) between randomization groups. The median time to detachment was 14.0 (IQR: 7-21, range: 5-35) days. The no-flip technique and spontaneous detachment are safe, effective, and acceptable to boys and men 10 years and older. Phimosis and penile adhesions do not limit successful ShangRing circumcision with the no-flip technique.
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Male circumcision (MC) is reported to reduce human papillomavirus (HPV) prevalence in men. However, the efficacy remains imprecise. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the relationship between MC and genital HPV infection and genital warts. PUBMED, EMBASE, and Web of Science were searched from inception to March 22, 2015. We identified 30 papers, including a total of 12149 circumcised and 12252 uncircumcised men who were evaluated for the association of circumcision with genital HPV or genital warts. Compared with men who were not circumcised, circumcised men may have had significantly reduced odds of genital HPV prevalence (odds ratio [OR]: 0.68; 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 0.56-0.82). There was no significant association between MC and genital HPV acquisition of new infections (OR: 0.99; 95% CI: 0.62-1.60), genital HPV clearance (OR: 1.38; 95% CI: 0.96-1.97), and prevalence of genital warts (OR: 1.17; 95% CI: 0.63-2.17). This meta-analysis suggests that circumcision reduces the prevalence of genital HPV infections. However, no clear evidence was found that circumcision was associated with decreased HPV acquisition, increased HPV clearance, or decreased the prevalence of genital warts.
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Male circumcision (MC) is one of the most common surgical procedures in the world, but its medical benefits remain under debate. In the context of evidence-based medicine, MC is beneficial in reducing the risks of infantile urinary tract infection, viral-mediated sexually transmitted diseases, penile/cervical cancers, and poor hygiene. The claims of opponents against MC, such as reduced sexual performance, psychological trauma, and an excess of complications, are gradually losing credibility. Possibly influenced by US troops stationed in Korea following the Korean War, MC is highly prevalent in South Korea, though it has been losing popularity recently. The practice of MC in Korea is different from that in other countries, in that most cases of MC are performed in adolescence under local anesthesia. Although this eliminates the benefit of reducing urinary tract infection in neonates, it still offers the benefits of reducing the risk of viral sexually transmitted diseases and penile/cervical cancers. Moreover, MC can lead to improved hygiene for the majority of Koreans who are willing to undergo the procedure. The practice of MC in adolescence may reduce the risk of significant complications, though the risk of bleeding may be higher than for neonates.
Subject(s)
Adolescent , Female , Humans , Infant, Newborn , Male , Male , Anesthesia, Local , Circumcision, Male , Evidence-Based Medicine , Hemorrhage , Hygiene , Korea , Korean War , Phimosis , Psychological Trauma , Sexually Transmitted Diseases , Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Viral , Urinary Tract InfectionsABSTRACT
Plastibell is one of the three most common devices used for neonatal circumcision in the United States, with a complication rate as low as 1.8%. The Plastibell circumcision device is commonly used under local anesthesia for religious circumcision in male neonates, because of cosmetic reasons and ease of use. Occasionally, instead of falling off, the device may get buried under the skin along the shaft of the penis, thereby obstructing the normal flow of urine. Furthermore, the foreskin of neonates is highly vascularized, and hence, hemorrhage and infection are possible when the skin is cut. Necrosis of penile skin, followed by urethral obstruction and renal failure, is a serious surgical mishap requiring immediate corrective surgery and medical attention. We report a case of fulminant urosepsis, acute renal failure, and pyelonephritis in a 4-day-old male neonate secondary to impaction of a Plastibell circumcision device. Immediate medical management was initiated with fluid resuscitation and mechanical ventilation; thereby correcting life threatening complications. Pediatricians and Emergency Department physicians should be cognizant of the complications from Plastibell circumcision device in order to institute appropriate and timely management in neonates.
Subject(s)
Female , Humans , Infant, Newborn , Male , Acute Kidney Injury , Anesthesia, Local , Circumcision, Male , Emergency Service, Hospital , Foreskin , Hemorrhage , Necrosis , Penis , Pyelonephritis , Renal Insufficiency , Respiration, Artificial , Resuscitation , Sepsis , Skin , Surgical Instruments , United States , Urethral ObstructionABSTRACT
La circuncisión consiste en cortar una porción del prepucio del pene que cubre al glande para dejarlo permanentemente al descubierto. Los motivos más frecuentes para circuncidar son religiosos, culturales o médicos. Muchos científicos, al igual que los autores de este artículo, justifican la circuncisión masculina para la disminución del riesgo de infección por virus de inmunodeficiencia humana e infecciones de transmisión sexual. A tales efectos se realizó una revisión bibliográfica para completar así la información disponible en las bases de datos nacionales al respecto.
The circumcision involves cutting a portion of the penis foreskin that covers the glans to leave it permanently exposed. The most common reasons for circumcision are religious, cultural or medical. Many scientists, as the authors of this article, justify male circumcision for reducing risk of infection with human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted infections. For this purpose a literature survey was conducted to complete the information available in national databases.
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ABSTRACT: In this work, I will analyse why Indian authorities find it so difficult to publicly acknowledge the medical benefits of Male Circumcision (MC). In doing so, the medical evidence in favour of the practice, as well as the moral duties that governing authorities have towards their citizens shall be taken to the fore. In addition to this argument, a brief explanation of the cultural dimension that refuses to evaluate the medical dimension of MC a priori shall be taken into account and, in relation to that, a parallel with the past and present Western tradition will be drawn, putting forward the conclusion that both contexts do not provide satisfactory justification for banning MC nor more relevantly for the Indian scenario can any cultural background represent a convincing argument against the public acknowledgement of the medical advantages provided by MC.
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Objective To longitudinally analyze the unit costs and technical efficiency of the model of male circumcision in the different kinds of persons .Methods Unit costs were calculated by the person and period using longitudinal data from 3 kinds of persons ,and then technical efficiency and Malmquist indices were measured with an approach to data envelopment analysis . Results Theunit costs for changing the willingness to accept surgery changed dramatically ,decreasing from 7 166 .67 yuan(mean) to 737 .31 yuan ,while the costs for changing the ratio of the surgery increased from 666 .64 yuan (mean) to 744 .58 yuan ,and its technical efficiency was averaging between 0 .95-0 .96 .Conclusion The time series of unit costs for changing the willingness to ac-cept surgery dramatically dropped ,while changing the ratio of the surgery formed a U-shape curve with an inflection point before which unit costs dramatically dropped and another inflection point beyond which unit costs went up .These findings can inform pro-gram managers of the changing unit costs when extending or expanding the program .
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Objetivos. Explorar factores culturales que inciden en la aceptabilidad de la circuncisión masculina como estrategia de prevención del VIH en comunidades de migrantes en México. Material y métodos. Estudio cualitativo mediante entrevistas a profundidad a 20 varones, a 5 mujeres parejas de migrantes y a 5 profesionistas de la salud, en dos comunidades rurales de Michoacán. Resultados. Aunque los varones aceptarían la circuncisión en caso de prescripción médica, existe un desconocimiento casi total del procedimiento, lo cual genera reacciones de temor y desconfianza. Esto sugiere una distancia entre aceptar y llevar a cabo dicho método. El personal médico consideró ambigua su promoción en comunidades rurales ante el desconocimiento sobre su efectividad y por falta de consentimiento informado. Conclusión. No existe antecedente cultural que pueda alojar la circuncisión masculina para prevención del VIH de manera positiva en la experiencia de los entrevistados.
Objectives. To explore cultural factors that influence the acceptability of male circumcision as a strategy for HIV prevention in migrant communities in Mexico. Materials and methods. Qualitative in-depth interviews with 20 men, 5 female partners of male migrants, and 5 health professionals in two rural communities in Michoacan. Results. Although male immigrants would accept circumcision if recommended by a doctor, they know almost nothing about what the procedure involves, which generates fear and distrust. As a result, there is considerable distance between theoretically accepting the practice and actually becoming circumcised. Medical staff also expressed ambivalence about promoting male circumcision in rural communities in light of little knowledge about its effectiveness and concerns about informed consent. Conclusion. Based on the experiences of our interviewees, currently there are no cultural interpretations that would effectively facilitate the promotion of male circumcision for the prevention of HIV.
Subject(s)
Female , Humans , Male , Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/prevention & control , Circumcision, Male , Patient Acceptance of Health Care , Transients and Migrants , Cultural Characteristics , Mexico/ethnology , Rural Population , United StatesABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To describe the attitudes of Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) clinic attendees towards male circumcision. DESIGN AND METHODS: A convenience sample of attendees at the main STI clinic in Kingston was interviewed using a structured questionnaire in June 2008. RESULTS: One-hundred men and 98 women were interviewed. Over 90% of the men were not circumcised. Although 60% of men and 67% of women reported that they had heard of circumcision, the research nurse assessed that 28% of men and 40% of women actually understood what circumcision was. When asked about the benefits of circumcision, 32% of men and 41.8% of women said that circumcision makes it easier to clean the penis while 13% of men and 20.4% of women said that circumcision lessens the likelihood of STI. Twenty-two per cent of men and 13.3% of women said that the foreskin offers protection while 18% of men and 10.2% of women said that the penis looks more attractive when uncircumcised. When informed that research showed that circumcision reduced the risk of HIV, 35% of men said that they were willing to be circumcised and 67.3% of women said that they would encourage their spouse to be circumcised (p < 0.001) while 54% of men and 72.4% of women said that they would circumcise their sons (p = 0.057). CONCLUSION: Knowledge of circumcision and its benefits were limited among STI clinic attendees. Significantly more women than men were in favour of circumcision when informed that it reduced the risk of HIV infection.
OBJETIVO: Describir las actitudes de los asistentes a la clínica de infecciones de transmisión sexual (ITS) hacia la circuncisión masculina. DISEÑO Y MÉTODOS: Una muestra de conveniencia de asistentes a la clínica principal de ITS en Kingston fue encuestada mediante un cuestionario estructurado en junio de 2008. RESULTADOS: Se entrevistaron 100 hombres y 98 mujeres. Más del 90% de los hombres no estaban circuncidados. Aunque el 60% de los hombres y el 67% de las mujeres informaron que habían oído hablar de la circuncisión, la enfermera de la investigación evaluó que el 28% de los hombres y el 40% de las mujeres realmente entendían que era la circuncisión. Cuando se les preguntó acerca de los beneficios de la circuncisión, el 32% de los hombres y el 41.8% de las mujeres dijeron que la circuncisión facilita la limpieza del pene, mientras que el 13% de los hombres y el 20.4% de las mujeres dijeron que la circuncisión disminuye la probabilidad de ITS. El veintidós por ciento de los hombres y el 13.3% de las mujeres dijo que elprepucio ofreceprotección, mientras que el 18% de los hombres y el 10.2% de las mujeres dijeron que el pene parece más atractivo cuando está incircunciso. Cuando se les informó que las investigaciones mostraban que la circuncisión reducía el riesgo de VIH, el 35% de los hombres dijeron que querían ser circuncidados y el 67.3% de las mujeres dijeron que estimularían a sus esposos a quefueran circuncidados (p < 0.001), mientras que el 54% de los hombres y el 72.4% de las mujeres dijeron que harían circuncidar a sus hijos (p = 0.057). CONCLUSIÓN: El conocimiento de la circuncisión y sus beneficios eran limitados entre los asistentes a la clínica de ITS. Un número significativamente mayor de mujeres en comparación con los hombres, estuvieron a favor de la circuncisión cuando se dio la información de que reducía el riesgo de infección de VIH.
Subject(s)
Adult , Female , Humans , Male , Circumcision, Male/psychology , HIV Infections/epidemiology , HIV Infections/prevention & control , Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice , Sexually Transmitted Diseases/epidemiology , Sexually Transmitted Diseases/prevention & control , Chi-Square Distribution , HIV Infections/transmission , Jamaica/epidemiology , Surveys and Questionnaires , Sexually Transmitted Diseases/transmissionABSTRACT
Objective To explore the acceptability of male circumcision (MC) as an HIV prevention method and its related factors among young men of Yi ethnicity in Liangshan prefecture. Methods 446 young men were selected in Butuo county,under stratified sampling method. Using a self-designed questionnaire,face to face interviews were taken to collect HIV-related risk behaviors,knowledge and acceptability of MC. Results After an introduction on MC by interviewers,40.6% of the interviewees expressed their willingness in taking this surgery. The main reason for acceptance was that they felt this surgery might reduce the risk of HIV infection (90.1%). For those who refused to take this surgery,most of them thought it was too sensitive and embarrassing (52.5%) and were afraid that it might affect their procreation ability. Data from logistic regression analysis indicated that the acceptability of MC was associated with the following factors as: age,income,experience of commercial sexual behavior. They also felt that messages related to male MC surgery could reduce the risk of being infected with HIV/STDs or induce pain when having sexual intercourse,or it might cause partial infection after surgery,or they might be mocked at if taking the surgery. Conclusion It is the prerequisite in helping young people of Yi ethnicity to have a good understanding on MC as for Yi people,embarrassment attitudes towards sex appears to be one of the big obstacles against the popularization of this surgery. The operation should be provided by trained and professional doctors,with standardized procedure,in good sanitary conditions and free for service.
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Recently the male circumcision becomes a hot issue not only in abroad but especially in Korea. Under this circumstance, it will be right that doctors and scholars restart to study about the merits and demerits of the male circumcision. There are little clear answers about its advantages in urinary infection, penile cancer, sexual function, etc. The only issue is that WHO and UNAIDS admit the male circumcision as a significant precautionary measure against HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) after finishing a large scale study. As a doctor, it will be desirable to explain to the patients or parents about the advantages and disadvantages of the male circumcision and help them make a choice considering its cultural, religious, legal, social, and emotional situation when the patient comes to the hospital for a male circumcision. However, it will be difficult to follow the Western statistics impetuously since the course of diffusion of HIV in Korea is different from that in USA, and there is no study in Korea about the merits and demerits of the male circumcision. Therefore, we conclude that it will be an impetuous assertion to argue that the male circumcision should be done before the adolescence, before starting an active sexual life, without any countermeasure.
Subject(s)
Adolescent , Female , Humans , Male , Circumcision, Male , Diffusion , HIV , Korea , Parents , Penile NeoplasmsABSTRACT
In 2008,the Ministry of Health,UNAIDS and the World Health Organization held a press conference,stating that sexual transmission had become a major route of transmission in China.Epidemiological research has shown that circumcision can be efficacious for males in reducing their risk of HIV acquisition via heterosexual activity.This article analyzes male circumcision as a HIV/AIDS prevention strategy from medical,public health and ethical perspectives.