Latin American Forensic Odontology: A Scoping Review of its Current Research and the Objective/Subjective Nature of its Studies

SUMMARY: The new paradigm in Forensic Sciences initiated by the entry of genetics (the current standard of legal evidence) and accentuated by recognized wrongful convictions derived from experts today in the eye of criticism, has highlighted the potential for bias and error in forensic disciplines when they depend on human interpretation and subjectivity, which has not been avoided by Forensic Odontology (FO). However, a subjective judgment is not necessarily wrong, so the refinement of processes, the development of standards, and robust research can contribute to the validity of interpretation to increase objectivity. Latin America (LATAM) has its own realities and needs, which have conditioned the priorities and objectives of FO research. A scoping review is presented to systematically map the investigation of LATAM researchers and identify the objective or subjective nature of their assessments. LATAM shows interesting productivity and intentions to adhere to international standards, with Brazil leading this research significantly, followed by Chile and Colombia, among others. However, there is a disproportionate approach in certain lines of research (dental age estimation), and needs to address other quantitative studies, and to improve the visibility of the LATAM FO research.

El nuevo paradigma en ciencias forenses iniciado por la entrada de la genética (el actual estándar de la evidencia jurídica), y acentuado por reconocidas condenas injustas derivadas de pericias hoy en el ojo de la crítica, ha destacado el potencial de sesgo y error que poseen algunas disciplinas forenses cuando dependen de la interpretación humana y la subjetividad, lo cual no ha sido ajeno a la odontología forense (OF). Sin embargo, un juicio subjetivo no necesariamente es erróneo, con lo que el refinamiento de procesos, el desarrollo de estándares y la investigación robusta pueden contribuir a validar esa interpretación para aumentar su objetividad. Latinoamérica (LATAM) posee realidades y necesidades propias que han condicionado las prioridades y objetivos de la investigación en OF. Se presenta una revisión con búsqueda sistemática para mapear sistemáticamente la investigación en OF realizada por investigadores latinoamericanos, así como identificar la naturaleza objetiva o subjetiva de sus evaluaciones. LATAM demuestra una productividad interesante e intenciones de adherirse a estándares internacionales, con Brasil liderando significativamente esta investigación, seguido por Chile y Colombia entre otros. Sin embargo, se observa un enfoque desproporcionado en ciertas líneas de investigación (estimación de edad dental particularmente), y necesidad tanto de abordar otros estudios cuantitativos como de mejorar la visibilidad de la investigación latinoamericana en OF.

THE PLAGUE BY ALBERT CAMUS AND WHY EVERYONE IS REREADING IT IN TIMES OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC

The Plague is the story of a plague-stricken town in Oran (Algeria), and it chronicles the life of its citizens and how they deal with morbidity, absurdity, separation, etc. It was initially perceived as allegory of France under Nazi occupation, a symbol against fascism, colonization, etc. But in the times of Covid-19 pandemic, it is the first time it has been read in the most literal and crude sense. This paper aims at analyzing the key elements of the book with the startling parallels of today's world.

Desvendando os sentidos do trabalho: limites, potencialidades e agenda de pesquisa / Unveiling the meanings of work: limits, potentials and research agenda

Neste texto, objetivamos analisar os conteúdos presentes na definição de sentido(s) do trabalho que possuem maior influência no campo das ciências sociais aplicadas no Brasil. Para tanto, efetuamos uma análise imanente dos artigos mais referenciados na área, identificados por meio de um estudo bibliométrico nos portais CAPES, Spell e SciELO, entre os anos de 2000 a 2017. A partir do levantamento bibliométrico, foi constatado que os estudos acerca do sentido do trabalho possuem dois autores basilares: Estelle Morin e Ricardo Antunes. Para Morin, o trabalho só adquire sentido se houver a intensificação do trabalho e ele for produtivo para o capital; para Antunes, o trabalho só tem sentido para além do capital. Por isso, é epistemologicamente incoerente dialogar os dois autores em um mesmo trabalho, pois um afirma o status quo e o outro o nega. A compreensão emanada dos textos analisados permitiu reafirmarmos a necessidade de resgatar a categoria "trabalho" em sua particularidade histórica, defendermos a postura filosófica da determinação ontoprática do pensamento e propormos reflexões sobre uma agenda de pesquisa.

In this text, we aim to analyze the contents present in the definition of meaning of work that have the greatest influence in the field of applied social sciences in Brazil. We performed an immanent analysis of the most referenced papers in the area identified through a bibliometric study in the portals CAPES, Spell and SciELO, between the years of 2000 to 2017. By the bibliometric survey it was verified that the studies about the "Meaning(s) of the Work" have two basic authors: Morin and Antunes. For Morin, the meanings of work only make sense if there is an intensification of labor and it is productive for capital; for Antunes, the meanings of labor only make sense beyond capital. Therefore, it is epistemologically impossible to discuss the two authors in the same work, as one affirms the status quo and the other denies it. The understanding emanating from the analyzed texts allowed us to reaffirm the need to rescue the "work" category from the perspective of political economy, to defend the philosophical stance of the ontopractic determination of thought and to propose a research agenda.

Crítica de la causalidad mecanicista en las ciencias de la vida / Criticism of mechanistic causality in life sciences

Resumen El empirismo reduccionista (ER) subyacente al habitus científico actual, al imponer la causalidad mecanicista (CM) como principio explicativo de las ciencias de la vida, ha oscurecido la comprensión del proceso vital al equipararlo al de una máquina. Se analizan las formas diversas que toman las ideas en el conocimiento como paradigmas (antropocéntrico y de disyunción, reducción y simplificación): lógicas implícitas de las formas de pensar y actuar humanos y como teorías comprensivo-explicativas. Se plantea que el ER, al desestimar las ideas, suplanta la significación biológica de lo observado por la significación estadística de la CM y las matemáticas lineales y probabilísticas. Se argumenta que la objetividad no deriva del control experimental, sino de un marco interpretativo pertinente al tipo de sucesos bajo estudio, y que la convicción de que la objetividad radica en el cómo se observa constituye el gran mito del ER que soslaya los paradigmas y su influencia. Se propone la causalidad contextual y se contrasta con la CM para realzar sus limitaciones y explicar la complejidad biológica. La coincidencia del colapso civilizatorio y la apoteosis de la ciencia reduccionista justifica tacharla de mayormente indiferente, omisa, impotente, acomodaticia o cómplice de la dominancia de los intereses de lucro sin límites, que todo lo degradan. Se concluye que son tiempos de definiciones: integrarse a fuerzas que apuntan, de modos diversos, a contrarrestar esa dominancia y preservar nuestro hábitat común o persistir en la complicidad individualista y suicida de «cada quién lo suyo y sálvese quien pueda¼.

Abstract The reductionist empiricism (RE) underlying the current scientific habitus by imposing mechanistic causality (MC) as an explanatory principle of life sciences has obscured the understanding of the life process by equating it with that of a machine. The shapes ideas can take within knowledge are analyzed: as paradigms (anthropocentric and of disjunction, reduction and simplification), implicit logics of human ways of thinking and acting, and as comprehensive-explanatory theories. It is proposed that, by dismissing the ideas, the RE supplants the biological significance of what is observed by the statistical significance of the MC and the linear and probabilistic mathematics. It is argued that objectivity does not derive from experimental control, but from an interpretative framework pertinent to the type of events being studied and that the conviction that objectivity lies in the method of observation constitutes a myth of the RE that circumvents paradigms and its influence. Contextual causality is proposed and contrasted with the MC to highlight its limitations to explain the ungraspable biological complexity. The coincidence of the ongoing collapse of civilization and the apotheosis of reductionist science justifies dismissing it as mostly indifferent, ominous, impotent, accommodating or complicit with the dominance of profit interests without limits that degrade everything. It is concluded that it is time for resolutions: integrate with forces that aim, in various ways, to counteract this dominance and preserve our common habitat or to continue with the suicidal individualist complicity of "each their due and every man for himself."

Optimismo epistémico: en defensa de la objetividad en la ciencia / Epistemic optimism: in defense of objectivity in science

El propósito de este trabajo es realizar una defensa de la posición objetivista frente a la insistente presencia de epistemologías constructivistas y relativistas en el campo de la psicología. Para cumplir este objetivo, examinamos críticamente algunos argumentos constructivistas y luego revisamos el papel de los factores no cognoscitivos y del marco conceptual del investigador en la construcción del conocimiento. Finalizamos con una breve discusión de la racionalidad en la decisión científica y de la posibilidad de un desarrollo progresivo, y no solo sustitutivo, del conocimiento científico. Nuestra conclusión es que, contrario a lo que sostienen constructivistas y relativistas, es posible generar conocimiento y que existe una línea real de progreso en el saber humano; a todo lo cual denominamos optimismo epistémico.

The purpose of this paper is to carry out a defense of the objectivist stance before the insistent presence of constructivist and relativist epistemologies in psychology. For this, we critically examine some constructivist arguments and then we review the role of non-cognitive factors and researchers' conceptual frameworks in constructing knowledge. We finalize with a brief account about rationality of scientific decision and the possibility of a progressive, not only substitute, development of scientific knowledge. We substitutive that, contrary to claims of constructivists and relativists, it is indeed possible to create knowledge and there exists a way of true progress in it, all of which we call epistemic optimism.

Dos modelos às políticas: O papel da representação nas Ciências Cognitivas / From models to politics: The role of representation in Cognitive Sciences / De modelos a las políticas: El papel de la representación en Ciencias Cognitivas

Neste artigo discutimos diferentes concepções de representação em algumas produções científicas relacionadas aos estudos da cognição. Nossa análise é produzida a partir dos contrastes criados entre a produção de modelos de processamento de informação - objetivo comum das pesquisas experimentais em psicologia cognitiva - e a construção de políticas cognitivas (Kastrup, 1999). Partimos da distinção entre representação forte, na qual a relação entre sujeito e objeto é dada a partir da reconstrução interna do segundo pelo primeiro, e representação fraca indicando apenas uma referência e não necessariamente uma correspondência entre sujeito e objeto (Varela, Thompson, & Rosch, 2003). Buscamos apontar que o modo como a representação é concebida define a forma como explicamos a cognição e essas explicações, por sua vez, contribuem para definir os modos de existência da cognição no mundo.

In this paper we discuss the different roles that representation can play in scientific productions related to studies of cognition. Our analysis is produced from the contrast created between the production of models of information processing, common goal of experimental research in cognitive psychology; and the construction of cognitive politics (Kastrup, 1999). We start from the distinction between strong representation, where the relationship between subject and object is given from the internal reconstruction of the later by the former; and weak representation indicating only a reference - not necessarily a match - between subject and object (Varela et al., 2003). We seek to point out that the way the representation is thought defines the way cognition is explained and those explanations, in turn, contribute to define the modes of existence of cognition in the world.

En este trabajo se discuten los diferentes papeles que la representación puede desempeñar en producciones científicas relacionadas con los estudios de la cognición. El análisis se produce a partir del contraste creado entre la producción de los modelos de procesamiento de la información, el objetivo común de la investigación experimental en psicología cognitiva; y la construcción de las políticas cognitivas (Kastrup, 1999). Partimos de la distinción entre una fuerte representación, donde la relación entre sujeto y objeto se da desde la reconstrucción interna de la tarde por el anterior; y representación débil indicando sólo una referencia - no necesariamente una coincidencia - entre sujeto y objeto (Varela et al., 2003). Buscamos a señalar que la forma en que se piensa la representación define la forma en la cognición se explica y esas explicaciones, a su vez, contribuyen a definir los modos de existencia de la cognición en el mundo.

Subjetividade e objetividade na psicologia contemporânea: apontamentos históricos, epistemológicos e filosóficos / Subjectivity and objectivity in the contemporary psychology: historical, epistemological and philosophical notes

Retomamos a análise filosófica e metodológica de autores da primeira metade do século XX sobre o conhecimento psicológico e estabelecemos um diálogo com aqueles do primeiro decênio do século XXI que, historicamente, epistemológica e filosoficamente, discutem o caminho tomado pela psicologia para se estabelecer como ciência, em consonância com as discussões sobre a história da criação da noção de objetividade científica e sobre os elementos subjetivos dessa construção. Evidenciamos que o foco particular está na definição do método de pesquisa, na consideração da subjetividade e na discussão sobre a consciência. Apontamos um consenso ao longo do tempo: a demanda de uma análise crítica e reflexiva da produção do conhecimento psicológico e a afinidade dessa produção com a prática de pesquisa e a prática profissional. Dialogando com diferentes autores, concluímos que a análise histórica, epistemológica e filosófica sobre o conhecimento psicológico tem permitido a elaboração de um modo inovador de se conceber a prática da pesquisa e a prática profissional que, ao contrário de negar os viéses culturais e políticos, passou à busca metodológica que permita considerá-los

We resume the philosophical and methodological analysis on psychological knowledge by authors from the first half of the twentieth century in order to establish a dialogue with those authors from the first decade of the twenty-first century who, historically, epistemologically and philosophically, discuss the path taken by the psychology to establish itself as a science, in line with the discussions on the history of the creation of the scientific objectivity notion and on the subjective elements of that construction. We highlight that the particular focus is on the definition of the research method, on considering subjectivity and on the discussion about consciousness. We point out a consensus over time: the demand for a critical and reflexive analysis on the production of the psychological knowledge and the affinity of this production with the research practice and the professional practice. Dialoguing with different authors, we conclude that the epistemological, philosophical and historical analysis of the psychological knowledge has allowed the development of an innovative way of conceiving the research practice and the professional practice which, rather than denying the cultural and political biases, started the methodological search that allows considering them.

Wealth related inequalities in self reported morbidity: Positional objectivity or epidemiological transition.

Background & objectives: Morbidity is self reported at a higher rate among the rich than the poor. However, objective measures suggest the contrary. We examined the role of epidemiological transition in wealth related inequalities in self-reported morbidity (SRM). Methods: We analyzed data of two states, Bihar and Kerala, from 60th Round of National Sample Survey (NSS). Bivariate analysis was performed to study the associations between various socio-demographic variables and self-reported morbidity. A prediction model based on hierarchical logistic regression was developed to identify determinants of self-reported morbidity. Results: In Bihar, acute morbidities (26 per 1000) were reported more often than chronic morbidities (19 per 1000) while in Kerala the reverse was true (89 acute and 123 chronic morbidities per 1000 person). In both the states, the rate of SRM showed an increasing trend from the poorest to the richest quintiles. The rising gradient in the odds of SRM across increasing socio-economic strata was more pronounced in Bihar [OR (richest)=2.52; 1.85-3.42] as compared to Kerala [OR (richest) =1.66; 1.37-2.0]. Moreover, this gradient was more on account of chronic diseases [OR (richest) =2.7; 1.8-4.0] for Bihar; [OR (richest) =1.6; 1.26-2.0 for Kerala] than the acute diseases [OR (richest) =1.82; 1.1-2.9 for Bihar]; [OR (richest) =1.4; 1.1-1.8 for Kerala]. Interpretation & conclusions: The present analysis shows that the epidemiologic transition results in higher prevalence and reporting of chronic ailments by the rich than the poor. This phenomenon is more evident in the early stages of transition. In later stages of transition, positional objectivity plays an important role to explain wealth related inequalities in SRM.

Subjective and Objective Evaluation of Voice Quality and Correlation Analysis in Children post Operation for Complete Cleft Palate / 中国康复理论与实践

Objective To analyze the voice quality of children post operation for complete cleft palate through subjective and objective evaluation and explore the correlation between them. Methods Electroglottography analysis was used in the natural sound/a/of 30 postoper-ative children with complete cleft palate and 34 normal children, and the difference was compared. The natural prolonged sound/a/was as-sessed with GRBAS (grade, roughness, breathiness, asthenia, strain) in the children with complete cleft palate, and the correlation between the subjective and objective results was analyzed. Results F0, harmonic to noise ratio (HNR) were less, and the shimmer, jitter, normalized noise energy (NNE) and nasalance was greater in postoperative children with complete cleft palate than in normal children. For the children with complete cleft palate, G and R mainly rated as levels 1 and 2, B also rated as levels 1 and 2 in less than half of the children. There were low or very low correlation between all subjective and objective results, excepted G, R, B and F0, which showed moderate correlation. Con-clusion The vocal cords vibrate slowly and irregularly in postoperative children with complete cleft palate, suggesting mild and moderate voice disorder, and they sound hoarsely with roughness and breathiness. There are poor correlations between the subjective and objective as-sessment, and need to be used in combination for the children with complete cleft palate.

La violencia de la "Antiviolencia": una crítica a la legislación mexicana contra la violencia de género / The Violence of the "Anti-violence": A Criticism of the Mexican Legislation Against Gender-based Violence

Indudablemente el tema de la violencia intrafamiliar lidera en México el ranking de preocupaciones de los científicos sociales y de quienes en ellos se basan para diseñar políticas públicas que la diagnostiquen, la controlen, la erradiquen y la prevengan. La Ley General de Acceso de las Mujeres a una Vida Libre de Violencia (LGAMVLV) representa un claro ejemplo de dicha mancuerna entre el conocimiento y el poder, y ostenta un carácter innovador en materia epistemológica al pretender mostrarse como multidimensional, objetiva, ecológica, compleja e interdisciplinaria. El objetivo de este artículo es presentar una reflexión crítica sobre cada una de dichas pretensiones, tras lo cual se concluiá que existen incongruencias y frivolizaciones que ameritan una seria y urgente revisión de sus fundamentos.

There's no doubt that the topic of domestic violence is a major concern for social scientists and for people who design public policies in Mexico. The General Law of Women's Access to a Life Free of Violence (GLWAL-FV) represents a clear example of the connection between knowledge and power, and boasts an innovative character in epistemological terms by attempting to show that it is multidimensional, objective, ecological, complex and interdisciplinary. The objective of this article is to present a critical reflection on each of these claims, after which it will conclude that there are inconsistencies and frivolities that deserve a serious and urgent review of its foundations.

Objetividade e método: positivismo nas ciências sociais em Weber e Bachelard / Objectivity and method: positivism in social sciences in Weber and Bachelard

Este artigo visa compreender elementos teóricos identificados em Bachelard e em Weber, considerados relevantes para se refletir sobre a elaboração de conhecimento científico nas ciências sociais. Estes elementos são a objetividade - a relação entre sujeito e objeto é fundamental - e o método vistos a partir de defesas teóricas que cada um dos autores fizeram em suas obras. A comparação dos elementos que se relacionam, objetividade e método nos autores em tela, é central na explanação sobre aproximações ou distanciamentos de Weber e Bachelard ao positivismo. Esclarece-se que a objetividade e o método estão imbricados, sendo que a maneira como se entende um, modifica consequentemente a forma como se vê o outro. Na mesma direção, há neste artigo a defesa da aproximação das reflexões elaboradas pela filosofia sobre a ciência e, a produção de conhecimento proposta e colocada em prática pelas ciências sociais. A “separação” que se faz adiante para a compreensão desses elementos em Bachelard e Weber é apenas um esforço didático de apresentação das ideias dos autores.

This paper aims to understand the theoretical elements identified in Bachelard and Weber, considered relevant to reflect on the development of scientific knowledge in the social sciences. These elements are the objectivity - the relationship between subject and object is key - and the method seen from theoretical defenses that each of the authors did in their works. The comparison of the elements that relate, objectivity and method in authors on screen, is central in identifying approaches or distancing Weber Bachelard and positivism. It is clarified that the objectivity and method are intertwined, and how we understand one, therefore changes the way you see the other. In the same vein, this article is defending the approach developed by the reflections on science and philosophy, knowledge production proposed and put into practice by the social sciences. The "separation" that is further to the understanding of these elements in Bachelard and Weber is just an effort didactic presentation of the ideas of the authors.

Este artículo tiene como objetivo comprender los elementos teóricos identificados em Bachelard y Weber, considera relevante para reflexionar sobre el desarrollo del conocimiento científico en las ciencias sociales. Estos elementos son la objetividad - la relación entre el sujeto y el objeto es la clave - y el método de vista de las defensas teóricas que cada uno de los autores hicieron en sus obras. La comparación de los elementos que se relacionan, la objetividad y el método de los autores en la pantalla, es central en la identificación de enfoques o distanciamiento Weber Bachelard y el positivismo. Se aclara que la objetividad y el método están entrelazadas, y cómo nos entendemos, por lo tanto, cambia la forma de ver al otro. En el mismo sentido, este artículo defiende el enfoque desarrollado por las reflexiones sobre la ciencia y la filosofía, la producción de conocimiento propuesto y puesto en práctica por las ciencias sociales. La "separación" que está más a la comprensión de estos elementos em Bachelard y Weber es sólo una presentación didáctica esfuerzo de las ideas de los autores.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as a Historian

Ambedkar was well versed in various disciples. Hence he was able to contribute with authority to various disciplines. Ambedkar‟s contribution to history is discussed in the present paper. He examines the various popular theories and their limitation in the understanding and unfolding of events related to history. The paper explores the problem of objectivity, imagination and interpretation as understood by Ambedkar.

Research Status of Objective Characteristics of TCM Digitized Tongue / 世界科学技术-中医药现代化

Computer science and technology has been used to promote the development of objectification of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which is also required for international development of TCM. In this paper, on the basis of current situation of Chinese medicine tongue objective research, the analysis was made on involved computer-related technology, relevant standards, and the future trend was discussed.

A subjetividade e a objetividade em Michel Foucault e Karl Marx: Algumas considerações / The subjectivity and objectivity in Michel Foucault and Karl Marx: Some considerations

A questão a respeito da relação entre sujeito e objeto tem sido debatida e explorada nas mais diversas tendências teórico-metodológicas, apresentando ressonâncias e discordâncias referentesàs possibilidades de desenvolvimento de uma ciência ou de um sistema filosófico que permitam a construção de um conhecimento sobre o mundo. Dentre tais tendências, as de dois autores, em específico, se diferenciam, respectivamente, em sua complexidade taxionômica e ontológica: Michel Foucault e Karl Marx. O objetivo deste texto é discutir aspectos da díade objetividade/subjetividade nos trabalhos desses dois pensadores, apontando algumas correlações entre elas. Para tanto, foi realizada uma discussão a respeito da concepção de conhecimentoadotada pelo filósofo francês Michel Foucault e da dificuldade encontrada por seus estudiosos e pensadores em classificar sua obra dentro de alguma tendência ou sistema teórico moderno, além de se discutir a respeito da diferença marcada pelo arcabouço teórico de Marx em relação a outros programas de pesquisa em ciências humanas modernas por não apresentaro indivíduo como entidade ontológica fundamental. A obra de Foucault traz algumas contribuições que, de certa maneira, influenciaram correntes neomarxistas em seu trabalho de reconstituição teórica e de resgate do marxismo.

The question of the relationship between subject and object has been discussed and explored in several theoretical and methodological systems, showing resonances and disagreements about the possibilities of developing a science or a philosophical system to allow the construction of the knowledge about the world. Among these, the systems of two authors in particular are different, respectively, regarding the complexity and ontological taxonomic: Michel Foucault and Karl Marx. This work aims to discuss the objectivity and subjectivity in the work of these two thinkers, indicating some possible correlations. The discussions were about the concept of knowledge in Michel Foucault, difficulties experienced by its researchers to classify their work within a classical theoretical system and the difference of Marxist theory in relation to other research programs for not presenting the individual as the fundamental ontological entity. Foucault´s work influenced the process of restoration and redemption of Marxism by Marxists groups.

The Achievements and Limitations of Researches That Make Use of Interviews for the History of Medicine in Korea / 의사학

An interesting aspect of the many recent researches on the history of medicine in Korea is a concentration on oral histories, a trend that is sure to supplement the lack of medical documents and historical materials covering the modern period. This trend will also contribute to the invention of new approaches in the historiography of medicine. Although the fragments of oral testimony cannot be expected to give a perfect representation of historical reality, such "slices of life" help represent history from the viewpoint of ordinary people and members of the medical profession who are less often acknowledged. The recent researches that have taken oral testimony on the history of medicine in Korea have both racked up achievements as well as encountered limitations. First, many disciplines such as history, literature, cultural anthropology, folklore, sociology, and the history of medicine have used the technique of oral histories in the research approaches, and, especially since the start of the 2000s, have produced a variety of materials. The large amounts of raw materials published in these many disciplines are sure to bring even higher research achievements. Second, for the most part, oral history researches in the medical profession have concentrated on second-tier practitioners, such as midwives, apothecaries, and acupuncturists, and the experiences of such untypical sufferers as lepers and victims of germ and atomic warfare. While the oral history of more prominent medical figures tends to underline his or her story of success, the oral histories of minority participants in the medical profession and patients can reveal the truth that has remained veiled until now. It is especially meaningful that these oral histories enable researchers to reconstruct history from below, as it were. Third, the researches that take the oral history approach are intended to complement documentary records. Surprisingly, through being given the opportunity to tell their histories, the interviewees have frequently experienced the testimony as an act of self-healing. Formally, an oral history is not a medical practice, but in many cases the interviewee is able to realize his or her own identity and to affirm his or her own life's story. It is in this light that we need to pay attention to the possibilities of such a humanistic form of therapy. Finally, because the research achievements depend on oral materials, the objectivity and rationality of description take on an important research virtue. When conducting an oral history, the researcher partakes of a close relationship with interviewees through persistent contact and can often identify with them. Accordingly, the researcher needs to take care to maintain a critical view of oral materials and adopt an objective perspective over his or her own research object.

Application of Oral History to Contemporary History of Medicine in Korea: With a Focus on Medical Scientists / 의사학

The oral history helps researchers to fill the gap in historical documents in research on the contemporary history of medicine in Korea. More and more studies in history of contemporary medicine in Korea have come out using oral history of doctors and patients. Based upon the author's research on development of neurosurgery in late 20th century Korea, this paper discusses how to apply oral history to contemporary history of medicine, focusing on oral history of doctors in Korea. In this paper the author describes how to do and use oral history of key doctors and medical scientists in the contemporary history of medicine in Korea. The oral history can be a powerful tool to complement the written documents as following. First, from their interview, doctors and medical scientists often provide valuable information which historians cannot get from documents and written sources. As intelligent interviewees, they not only understand the purpose of research but also help actively the historian-researcher-interviewer. Second, the oral history facilitates further searches and often it leads to more findings of informants, and written and image material. More often than not, doctors and medical scientists do their own research on the topic and provide the historian with valuable historical source material from their laboratories, bedsides, family and friends. Third, interviews with medical scientists and oral material produced by doctors and medical scientists helped the researcher to understand and interpret the papers and written documents. Fourth, the subjective stories told by the medical scientists provide perspectives and historical source as narrative truth. Before a historian attempts to use the oral material as complementary historial evidence, he or she needs to cross-check the validity and of objectivity of the oral material. Oral material is produced through bidirectional intersubjective interaction between the interviewer and interviewee, and critical reflection over the relationship between the two is crucial. Especially the researcher should keep an eye on the possible bias and strive for the objectivity of the oral material with discernment and reflection, when she or he found the interviewees of doctors and medical scientists closely connected together and tied together in a web of relationship with a common interest or agenda.

Structured Clinical Case Presentation for Assessment of Undergraduates during Initial Clinical Postings.

Structured Clinical Case Presentation (SCCP) was designed as a modification of the long case to more objectively and systematically assess the communication, examination and analytical skills of undergraduate students. Students’ perception of the assessment by the long case or SCCP was noted using questionnaires and feedback collected from the examining faculty regarding the strengths and limitations of the new method.

Política, Praxis e Pseudo-Atividade em Adorno / Politics, praxis and pseudo-activities in Adorno

Ao contrário da sua propalada aversão à práxis, Adorno situa em sua obra a prática em um nexo fundamental com suas posições teóricas e vice-versa. O objeto de sua apreensão teórica é a sociedade como auto-produção humana em todas as suas dimensões. As próprias formas sociais da sociedade são também socialmente produzidas. Assim a política não deve ser encarada como prática no plano da sociedade, mas no plano da produção histórica e social da mesma. Na sociedade vigente, as formas sociais parecem formas naturais perenes; o que seria práxis política se instala como pseudo-atividade de sujeitos assujeitados objetivamente numa ordem meramente adaptativa. Como construção do todo social verdadeiro, a política deve levar em conta estas determinações sociais que a condicionam na sociedade atual, decifrando-as em sua gênese; não pode prescindir da teoria para conferir objetividade à ação ao intervir na própria produção destas determinações.

Although one finds very often assertions that Adorno has an aversion for praxis, this is a basic and foundational concept, articulated to Adorno's theoretical stand. The subject matter of Adorno's theoretical apprehensions is society understood as human self-production in all its dimensions. The social forms of society are, themselves, socially produced. Therefore politics should not be taken only as praxis on the realm of society, but it must be taken on the realm of its social and historical production. Social forms of the present society seem to be natural and immutable; what should be taken as political praxis appears as pseudo-activities of subjects that are objectively submitted to a merely adaptive order. Politics, as a construction of the true social whole, should take into account the social determinants of its existence in the present society, deciphering its genesis. Politics, to be objective in its actions to intervene in the determiners of its own production, cannot exist without theory.

Determinación y causalidad en salud colectiva: algunas consideraciones en torno a sus fundamentos epistemológicos / Determination and causality in Public Health: some considerations on its epistemological foundations

La discusión sobre los determinantes es muy prolífica en el campo de la salud, no obstante todavía hace falta reflexionar sobre la manera en que ésta es definida y entendida como una categoría que permite problematizar la realidad desde una mirada totalizadora y compleja y sobre los alcances que puede tener su aplicación en la salud colectiva. Este trabajo discute los conceptos de causalidad, que predomina en la visión positivista, y determinación utilizado por algunas visiones alternativas en el campo de la salud. Se exponen algunos argumentos en torno al tratamiento ontológico y epistemológico en el estudio del proceso salud-enfermedad a partir de algunos planteamientos de la fenomenología.

The discussion on the determinants is extremely prolific in the area of health. However, we still have to think about the way in which the determination is defined and understood as a category that allows to question reality, from an overall and complex view, and the extent that they can have their application in public health. This article discusses the concepts of causality, which is dominant in the positivist vision as well as determination and historicity, used by some alternative views on health. Some arguments are exposed on the ontological and epistemological approach to address the study of health-disease process, from considerations of phenomenology.

Ethical Issues in Physician-Pharmaceutical Industry Interactions

On April 28, the National Assembly passed 3 bills revising the Medical Act, Pharmaceutical Affairs Act, and Medical Instruments Act which are related to the so-called 'dual punishment system' at its 9th plenary session of the 289th provisional meeting. According to the government timetable, beginning November of this year (2010), doctors will be subject to imprisonment for up to two years or face fines of up to 30 million won when found to have taken financial or non-financial benefits from drug companies. Their license could also be suspended for one year. Interactions between industry and physicians are vital to public health. However, they must be principled partnerships effectively managed to sustain public trust in both partners' commitment to patient welfare and the improvement of health care. Mounting scientific evidence indicates that gifts, favors, and other marketing activities, both explicit and implicit, prejudice independent judgment in unconscious ways. Physicians who receive free gifts from the pharmaceutical industry must consider the ethical dilemmas posed by this practice. These dilemmas are conflict of interest, impairment of objectivity, and the impact of these free gifts on the cost of health care. In order to minimize the likelihood of biased decisions by physicians, pharmaceutical companies should comply with their code of ethics for fair competition, while medical societies should establish an influence-free culture for physicians and optimize the benefits inherent in the principled relationships between medical society and industry.