Errores preanalíticos en la recolección de orina de 24 horas / Preanalytical errors in 24-hour urine collection

RESUMEN Introducción. La recolección de orina en el lapso de 24 horas es necesaria para la medición de constituyentes bioquímicos que presentan una excreción urinaria variable; sin embargo, dicho proceso no está exento de errores preanalíticos. Objetivos. Evaluar el nivel de cumplimiento de las instrucciones para recoger la muestra, identificar la recolección de orinas incompletas y conocer los procesos preanalíticos que aplica un grupo de profesionales. Métodos. Estudio de diseño observacional, en el que se realizó encuestas anónimas y voluntarias a 257 pacientes ambulatorios y 59 profesionales tecnólogos médicos, además de estimar la excreción urinaria de creatinina a 416 muestras. Resultados. El estudio evidenció recolecciones incorrectas (39,7%), uso de recipientes inadecuados (58,14%), mala conservación de las muestras (98,8%), cambio en los hábitos de ingesta de líquidos (23,7%), escasa información y retroalimentación a los pacientes sobre la preparación de la prueba, el 76,92% de muestras presentaron pérdidas o excesos en el volumen recolectado y una alta variabilidad de los criterios que utilizan los profesionales para rechazar las muestras mal colectadas. Conclusión. Se observó un bajo cumplimiento de los pacientes a las indicaciones para la recolección de la muestra, una alta proporción de recolecciones incompletas y discordancia en los procesos preanalíticos para el análisis de orina de 24 horas.

ABSTRACT Introduction. Urine collection within 24 hours is necessary for the measurement of biochemical constituents with variable urinary excretion, however, this process is not free of preanalytical errors. Objectives. To evaluate the level of compliance with the instructions for sample collection, identify the collection of incomplete urine and know the pre-analytic processes applied by a group of professionals. Methods. Observational design study, in which anonymous and voluntary surveys were conducted with 257 outpatients and 59 Medical Technologist professionals, in addition to estimating the urinary excretion of creatinine in 416 samples. Results. The study evidenced incorrect collections (39.7%), use of inappropriate containers (58.14%), poor preservation of samples (98.8%), change in fluid intake habits (23.7%), little information and feedback to patients on the preparation of the test, 76.92% of samples presented losses or excesses in the volume collected and a high variability of the criteria used by professionals to reject poorly collected samples. Conclusion. Low compliance of the patients to the indications for sample collection, a high proportion of incomplete collections, and discordance in the preanalytical processes for the 24-hour urinalysis were observed.

Nueva ecuación para la estimación de la natriuresis diaria a partir de parámetros en plasma y orina aislada en población chilena / A new equation to estimate daily natriuresis from parameters in plasma and spot urine sample in the Chilean population

Background: Excessive sodium intake is associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Daily sodium intake is usually inferred from sodium excretion in a 24-hour urine collection, which is cumbersome and prone to errors. Different formulas have attempted to estimate 24-hour urinary sodium from a spot urine sample. Unfortunately, their concordances are insufficient and have not been tested in our population. Aim: To develop an equation to predict 24-hour urine sodium from parameters in plasma and spot urine samples. To validate the equation and compare it with other formulas in Chilean population. Material and Methods: Analysis of 24-hour urine collections, plasma sample and spot urine sample from 174 adult outpatients (81% females) with an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) ≥ 60 mL/min/1.73m2. These were collected between 2015 and 2019 using standardized methods and educating patients about the correct method to collect 24 h urine samples. In all these patients, creatinine and electrolytes were measured in plasma and urine. A new equation was developed using a multiple linear regression model. Results: Twenty-four-hour urine sodium excretion was significantly correlated with age, weight, height, eGFR, plasma osmolarity, urine electrolytes and parameters obtained from spot urine sample, among others. The new equation had a linear correlation with 24-hour natriuresis of 0.91 and the concordance was 0.9. The predictive capacity of the new equation was better than the existing formulas. Conclusions: We developed a formula to accurately predict daily natriuresis in the Chilean population.

Condutas que podem interferir na fase pré- analítica do exame sumário de urina / Conductas que pueden interferir en la fase preanalítica de la prueba sumaria de orina / Conducts that may interfere in the pre-analytical phase of the urine summary test

RESUMO Objetivo: identificar as condutas pré-analíticas que podem influenciar nos resultados do exame sumário de urina. Método: trata-se de um estudo exploratório, descritivo, do tipo transversal, de natureza quantitativa, realizada com 246 pacientes de um laboratório público de referência do município de João Pessoa, Paraíba, durante os meses de junho e julho de 2019. A análise de dados foi realizada por estatística descritiva e inferencial, com Teste de Qui-Quadrado e Correlação de Spearman, elencado após o teste de Kolmogorov-Sminorv. Resultados: em relação ao conhecimento sobre o exame, 138 (56,1%) dos participantes afirmaram possuí-lo, porém 174 (70,7%) relataram não terem sido orientados antes da coleta do exame. A correlação evidenciou que, quanto maior o conhecimento, mais adequadas eram as condutas pré-analíticas. Conclusão: observou-se baixo nível de conhecimento sobre o procedimento, contribuindo para condutas pré-analíticas inadequadas. Destaca-se a importância de ofertar ao cliente orientações sobre a coleta do exame.

RESUMEN Objetivo: identificar las condiciones preanalíticas que pueden influir en los resultados de la prueba sumaria de orina. Método: se trata de un estudio exploratorio, descriptivo, transversal, de carácter cuantitativo, realizado con 246 pacientes de un laboratorio público de referencia del municipio de João Pessoa, Paraíba, durante los meses de junio y julio de 2019. El análisis de los datos se realizó mediante estadísticas descriptivas e inferenciales, con la prueba de Chi-cuadrado y la correlación de Spearman, que figuran después de la prueba de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. Resultados: en cuanto a los conocimientos sobre el examen, 138 (56,1%) de los participantes afirmaron tenerlos, pero 174 (70,7%) declararon no haber recibido orientación antes del examen. La correlación demostró que cuanto mayor era el conocimiento, más adecuados eran los procedimientos preanalíticos. Conclusión: se observó un bajo nivel de conocimiento sobre el procedimiento, lo que contribuyó a que las conclusiones preanalíticas fueran inadecuadas. Destaca la importancia de ofrecer al cliente orientaciones sobre la coleta de la prueba.

ABSTRACT Objective: to identify the pre-analytical conducts that can influence the results of the urine summary test. Method: this is an exploratory, descriptive, cross-sectional study, of quantitative nature, conducted with 246 patients from a public reference laboratory in the municipality of João Pessoa, Paraíba, during the months of June and July 2019. Data analysis was performed by descriptive and inferential statistics, with Chi-square Test and Spearman Correlation, cast after Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Results: regarding knowledge about the exam, 138 (56.1%) of the participants said they had it, but 174 (70.7%) reported not having been instructed before the exam. The correlation showed that the greater the knowledge, the more appropriate were the pre-analytical procedures. Conclusion: a low level of knowledge about the procedure was observed, contributing to inadequate pre-analytical conducts. The importance of offering the client guidance on the collection of the exam is highlighted.

Exames laboratoriais da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde: metodologia de amostragem, coleta e análise dos dados / Laboratory exams of the National Health Survey: methodology of sampling, data collection and analysis

RESUMO: Introdução: O artigo teve o objetivo de descrever a metodologia de coleta dos dados dos exames laboratoriais da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde (PNS). Metodologia: Foi selecionada uma subamostra de 25% dos setores censitários, obedecendo à estratificação da amostra da PNS, com probabilidade inversamente proporcional à dificuldade de coleta. A coleta de sangue e urina dos moradores selecionados para entrevista individual foi realizada nos domicílios por um agente de laboratório. Por conta das dificuldades encontradas no trabalho de campo,a amostra não atingiu número suficiente em alguns estratos da pesquisa, então para a análise dos dados foi proposto procedimento de pós-estratificação. Resultados: A coleta de material biológico foi realizada em 8.952 indivíduos. Os exames realizados foram: hemoglobina glicada; colesterol total; colesterol LDL; colesterol HDL; sorologia para dengue; hemograma série vermelha (eritograma) e série branca (leucograma); cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC) para diagnóstico de hemoglobinopatias; e creatinina. Na urina, estimativa de excreção de potássio, sal, sódio e creatinina. A base de dados dos exames laboratoriais foi ponderada e disponibilizada para os usuários no site da PNS da Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, sem necessidade de autorização prévia para uso. Conclusão: A subamostra total coletada é de grande valia, pois permitiu estabelecer parâmetros de referência nacionais adequados às características sociodemográficas e geográficas da população brasileira, fornecendo informações relevantes e complementares para a análise da situação de saúde do Brasil.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: This article aims at describing the National Health Survey (Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde- PNS) methodology of collecting laboratory exams data. Methodology: A subsample of 25% of the census tracts was selected, according to the stratification of the PNS sample, with a probability inversely proportional to the difficulty of collection. The collection of blood and urine was done in the households by a laboratory agent, among residents selected for individual interview. Due to the difficulties found in the field work, the sample did not reach the minimum expected number in some strata, and a post-stratification procedure was proposed for the data analysis. Results: The collection of biospecimens was performed in 8,952 individuals. Laboratory tests were: glycated hemoglobin; total cholesterol; LDL cholesterol; HDL cholesterol; serology for dengue; red blood cell count (erythrogram) and white series count (leukogram); high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for diagnosis of hemoglobinopathies; creatinine. Theexcretion of potassium, salt and sodium and creatinine was estimated in the urine. The database of laboratory exams was weighed and made publicly available on the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation's PNS website and can be accessed without prior authorization. Conclusion: The total subsample of laboratory exams is of great value, since it allowed us to establish national reference parameters adequate to sociodemographic and geographic characteristics of the Brazilian population, providing relevant and complementary information for the analysis of the health situation of Brazil.

Validation of single measurement of 12-hour urine excretion for estimation of sodium and potassium intake. A longitudinal study

ABSTRACT BACKGROUND: Evaluation of sodium and potassium intake can be carried out using different methods. Biological markers are able to capture intra and inter-individual variability and are used as separate measurements of consumption. The aim of this study was to test the validity of a single measurement of urinary sodium and potassium excretion as representative of habitual intake. DESIGN AND SETTING: Longitudinal study, federal university. METHODS: Food consumption data from a sample of adult university students and public servants (25 to 74 years old) were collected through 24-hour records and 12-hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion at five different times over a one-year period. The dietary data were entered into a nutritional research data software system and the sodium and potassium intakes were estimated. The variables were tested for normal distribution using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. One-way analysis of variance or the Kruskal-Wallis test was used to evaluate means. Correlations between measurements using Pearson or Spearman coefficients were calculated. The degree of agreement between the five measurements was given by the intraclass correlation coefficient. RESULTS: Satisfactory agreement was found between the five measurements of urinary sodium and potassium excretion over a year, with little variability in consumption. CONCLUSION: A single measurement of urinary sodium and potassium accurately estimated the usual average consumption of these electrolytes. This can be used in population-based studies.

Adolescentes encuentran fácil tomar sus propias muestras para estudio de infecciones de transmisión sexual / Adolescents find it easy to collect their own samples to study sexually transmitted infections

Background: As alternative for patients that fear genital examination, we assessed adolescent's comfort and ease with self-collected samples for nucleic acid amplification testing for sexually transmitted infections. Patients and Methods: Sexually active Chilean adolescents and youth under 25 years (174 males and 117 females) were enrolled. Females used self-collected vaginal swabs and males collected first-stream urine. A satisfaction survey evaluating self-sampling system was applied. Results: Self-collection was considered easy in 99.3% of the interviewees (CI 95% 0.88-0.98). In women, 79.3% preferred vaginal self-collected samples than pelvic exam (CI 95% 0.73-0.85). In men, 80.3% preferred self-collected first-stream urine to urethral swabs (CI 95% 0.73-0.87). Assuming that self-collected sampling were available, 89.6% of women (CI 95% 0.85-0.94) and 93.2% of men (CI 95% 0.89-0.98) would be prone to be tested more often. Ease of self-collected sampling is not associated with age, gender, educational level or poverty. Conclusions: Chile currently does not have sexually transmitted infections surveillance or screening programs for youth and adolescents. Given self-collected sampling's good acceptability, it could be successfully used when these programs are implemented.

Introducción: Como alternativa para pacientes que temen al examen genital o para aquellos asintomáticos, se evaluó la satisfacción de adolescentes con el sistema de autotoma -muestra tomada por el propio paciente- para amplificación de ácidos nucleicos y determinación de infecciones de transmisión sexual (ITS). Material y Método: Se enrolaron 174 mujeres y 117 hombres menores de 25 años sexualmente activos. Las mujeres se realizaron autotoma con tórula vaginal. Los hombres, autotoma de orina de primer chorro. Se aplicó encuesta de satisfacción. Resultados: A 99,3%, le resultó fácil obtener muestras mediante autotoma (IC 95% 0,88-0,98). En mujeres, 79,3% prefirió la autotoma vaginal por sobre el examen pélvico (IC 95% 0,73-0,85). En hombres, 80,3% prefirió la autotoma de orina por sobre el hisopado uretral (IC 95% 0,73-0,87). Si la autotoma estuviera disponible, 89,7% de las mujeres (IC 95% 0,85-0,94) y 93,2% de los hombres (IC 95% 0,89-0,98) estarían dispuestos a someterse a un examen de ITS en forma más seguida. Encontrar fácil la autotoma no se asoció con edad, género, escolaridad ni pobreza. Conclusiones: Chile aún no tiene programas de vigilancia o detección de ITS para jóvenes y adolescentes. Dada la buena aceptabilidad de la autotoma, se podría emplear exitosamente cuando estos programas se implementen.

Formula to detect high sodium excretion from spot urine in chronic kidney disease patients / Fórmula para detectar elevada excreção de sódio a partir de amostra isolada de urina de pacientes com doença renal crônica pré-dialítica

Abstract Introduction: Excessive sodium intake is related to adverse renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and assessment of sodium intake is complex and not evaluated very often in clinical practice. Objective: To develop a new formula to estimate 24h sodium excretion from urine sample (second void) of patients with CKD. Methods: We included 51 participants with CKD who provided 24-hour urine collection and a sample of the second urine of the day to determine the sodium excretion. A formula to estimate the 24-hour sodium excretion was developed from a multivariate regression equation coefficients. The accuracy of the formula was tested by calculating the P30 (proportion of estimates within 30% of measured sodium exection) and the ability of the formula to discriminate sodium intake higher than 3.6 g/day was evaluated by ROC curve. Results: Correlation test between measured and estimated sodium was significant (r = 0.57; p < 0.001), but P30 test identified a low accuracy (61%) of the formula. Different cutoff points were tested by performance tests and a ROC curve was generated with the cutoff that showed better performance (3.6 g/day). An area under the curve of 0.69 with a sensitivity of 0.91 and specificity of 0.53 was obtained. Conclusion: A simple formula with high sensitivity in detecting patients with sodium consumption higher than 3.6 g/day from isolated urine sample was developed. Studies with a higher number of participants and with different populations are necessary to test formula´s validity.

Resumo Introdução: O consumo excessivo de sódio está relacionado a piores desfechos renais e cardiovasculares em pacientes com doença renal crônica (DRC), mas a avaliação deste consumo é complexa e mensurada com baixa frequência na prática clínica. Objetivo: Desenvolver uma nova fórmula para estimar a excreção de sódio de 24h a partir da concentração de sódio em amostra isolada da segunda urina do dia em pacientes com DRC pré-dialítica. Métodos: 51 participantes com DRC forneceram coleta de urina de 24h e uma amostra da segunda urina do dia para determinação da excreção de sódio. Uma fórmula para estimar a excreção de sódio de 24h foi desenvolvida a partir dos coeficientes da equação de regressão. A acurácia da fórmula foi testada por meio do cálculo do P30. A habilidade da fórmula em discriminar consumo de sódio superior a 3,6 g/dia foi avaliada pela curva ROC. Resultados: O teste de correlação entre sódio mensurado e estimado pela fórmula foi r = 0,57; p < 0,001, porém o resultado do P30 identificou baixa acurácia (61%). Diferentes pontos de corte foram testados por meio de testes de performance e uma curva ROC foi gerada com o ponto de corte de melhor performance (3,6 g/dia). Foi obtida uma área sob a curva de 0,69 com sensibilidade 0,91 e especificidade 0,53. Conclusão: Foi desenvolvida uma fórmula simples com elevada sensibilidade em detectar pacientes com consumo de sódio superior a 3,6 g/dia a partir de amostra de urina isolada. Estudos que testem a fórmula com um maior número de participantes e com outras populações são necessários.

Change in antimicrobial susceptibility of Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium isolated from urine in 2004-2014 / 中国感染控制杂志

Objective To investigate the change in antimicrobial susceptibility of Enterococcus faecalis (E.faecalis) and Enterococcus faecium (E.faecium) isolated from clinical urine specimens, so as to provide laboratory evidence for clinical anti-infective treatment.Methods Antimicrobial susceptibility of E.faecalis and E.faecium isolated from urine specimens from 20 tertiary hosptials in China between 2004 and 2014 were analyzed, drug-resistant genes of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus(VRE)were detected with polymerase chain reaction (PCR).Results A total of 788 Enterococcus strains were isolated in 2004-2014, 371 strains were E.faecalis strains, 417 were E.faecium strains.Susceptibility rates of E.faecalis to ampicillin, nitrofurantoin, fosfomycin, vancomycin, and teicoplanin were all>90%, susceptibility rates to rifampin, minocycline, and erythromycin were all<20%, there was significant difference in the susceptibility rate of E.faecalis to fosfomycin betwen July 2011-June 2012 and July 2009-June 2010(P<0.0167).Susceptibility rates of E.faecium to vancomycin and teicoplanin were 96.9% and 97.4% respectively, susceptibility rates to nitrofurantoin, minocycline, and fosfomycin were 41.7%, 51.8%, and 78.2% respectively, susceptibility rates to ampicillin, levofloxacin, rifampicin, and erythromycin were all<10%;susceptibility rates of E.faecium to nitrofurantoin had decreased tendency in different years (any two group comparison, all P<0.0167), susceptibility rates to fosfomycin in July 2011-June 2012 and July 2013-June 2014 both decreased compared with July 2009-June 2010(both P<0.0167),there were no significant changes in antimicrobial usceptibility rates in different years.14 strains of VRE all carried vanA resistance gene.Conclusion E.faecalis strains isolated from urine are susceptible to ampicillin, nitrofurantoin, and fosfomycin, E.faecium are not susceptible to most antimicrobial agents;E.faecalis and E.faecium are both susceptible to vancomycin and teicoplanin, only a few strains are resistant to antimicrobial agents.

Development and application of disposable closed midstream urine collector / 中华护理杂志

Objective To solve the problems of easily being contaminated and being difficult to hold and poor sealing for traditional midstream urine collection cups,and to reduce the unqualified rate of midstream urine collection.Methods A total of 126 patients without indwelling urinary catheter were selected from July to December in 2016 as the experimental group.From January to May 2016,112 patients without urinary catheter were selected as the control group.On the basis of conventional therapy and nursing care,the experimental group was given the self-designed disposable closed midstream urine collector to collect the specimens,and the control group was given the traditional urine cup to collect specimens.The unqualified rate,patient satisfaction and compliance were compared between two groups.Results There were 126 specimens in the experimental group,ll5 were qualified specimens,11 were unqualified specimens,and the unqualified rate was 8.73％(11/126);there were 122 specimens in the control group,91 were qualified specimens,21 were unqualified specimens,and the unqualified rate was 18.75％ (21/122);the satisfaction scores of the experimental group and the control group were (4.3±0.2) and (2.8±0.6),respectively;the experimental group had 66 cases of full compliance,48 cases of partial compliance,12 cases of non-compliance,and the compliance rate was 90.47％ (114/126);the control group had 27 cases of full compliance,51 cases of partial compliance,34 cases of noncompliance,and the compliance rate was 39.28％(44/112).Conclusion The disposable closed midstream urine collector can reduce the unqualified rate of specimens and improve patient satisfaction rate and compliance.

Development and application of disposable closed midstream urine collector / 中华护理杂志

Objective To solve the problems of easily being contaminated and being difficult to hold and poor sealing for traditional midstream urine collection cups,and to reduce the unqualified rate of midstream urine collection.Methods A total of 126 patients without indwelling urinary catheter were selected from July to December in 2016 as the experimental group.From January to May 2016,112 patients without urinary catheter were selected as the control group.On the basis of conventional therapy and nursing care,the experimental group was given the self-designed disposable closed midstream urine collector to collect the specimens,and the control group was given the traditional urine cup to collect specimens.The unqualified rate,patient satisfaction and compliance were compared between two groups.Results There were 126 specimens in the experimental group,ll5 were qualified specimens,11 were unqualified specimens,and the unqualified rate was 8.73％(11/126);there were 122 specimens in the control group,91 were qualified specimens,21 were unqualified specimens,and the unqualified rate was 18.75％ (21/122);the satisfaction scores of the experimental group and the control group were (4.3±0.2) and (2.8±0.6),respectively;the experimental group had 66 cases of full compliance,48 cases of partial compliance,12 cases of non-compliance,and the compliance rate was 90.47％ (114/126);the control group had 27 cases of full compliance,51 cases of partial compliance,34 cases of noncompliance,and the compliance rate was 39.28％(44/112).Conclusion The disposable closed midstream urine collector can reduce the unqualified rate of specimens and improve patient satisfaction rate and compliance.

Purple urine bag syndrome: case report for Streptoccocus agalactiae and literature review / Síndrome da urina roxa na bolsa coletora: relato de caso por Streptoccocus agalactiae e revisão da literatura

Abstract We report a case of purple urine bag syndrome, associated to Streptococcus agalactiae urinary tract infection, progressing to septic shock and death. We present a review of the literature on the subject and take the opportunity to attend readers about increasing incidence with population aging and its potential bad outcome.

Resumo Relatamos um caso de síndrome de urina roxa na bolsa coletora, associada à infecção do trato urinário por Streptococcus agalactiae, evoluindo para choque séptico e óbito. Apresentamos ainda uma revisão da literatura sobre o assunto e aproveitamos para atentar os leitores sobre o aumento de sua incidência com o envelhecimento populacional e seu potencial mau prognóstico.

Sodium and potassium intake estimated using two methods in the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil) / Consumo de sódio e potássio estimado por dois métodos no Estudo Longitudinal de Saúde do Adulto (ELSA-Brasil)

ABSTRACT CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: Sodium and potassium intake from different food sources is an important issue regarding cardiovascular physiology. Epidemiological assessment of the intake of these electrolytes intake is done through food frequency questionnaires or urinary excretion measurements. Our aim was to compare these methods using a sample of Brazilian civil servants. DESIGN AND SETTING: Cross-sectional baseline evaluation from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health. METHODS: Sodium and potassium intake was obtained using two methods: a semi-quantitative questionnaire including 114 food items; and overnight 12-hour urinary excretion measurement. Sodium and potassium estimates obtained through the questionnaire were adjusted for energy intake using the residual method. Urinary excretion measurements were considered valid if they met three adequacy criteria: collection time, volume and total creatinine excretion. Mean nutrients were estimated, and Spearman correlations were calculated. Sodium and potassium intake was categorized into quintiles, and weighted kappa coefficients and percentage agreement were calculated. The significance level for all tests was 0.05. RESULTS: Data from 15,105 participants were analyzed, and significant differences between mean intakes of sodium (questionnaire: 4.5 ± 1.7 g; urine: 4.2 ± 2.1 g) and potassium (questionnaire: 4.7 ± 1.8 g; urine: 2.4 ± 1 g) were found. Weak agreement was found for sodium (K = 0.18) and potassium (K = 0.16). The percentage disagreement between methods ranged from 41.8 to 44.5%, while exact concordance ranged from 22.1% to 23.9%. CONCLUSIONS: The agreement between the food frequency questionnaire and urinary excretion measurements for assessment of sodium and potassium intakes was modest.

RESUMO CONTEXTO E OBJETIVO: O consumo de sódio e potássio de diferentes fontes alimentares é uma questão importante para a fisiologia cardiovascular. A avaliação epidemiológica do consumo desses eletrólitos é feita pelo questionário de frequência alimentar ou pela excreção urinária. O objetivo deste estudo é comparar esses métodos em uma amostra de servidores públicos brasileiros. TIPO DE ESTUDO E LOCAL: Avaliação transversal da linha de base do Estudo Longitudinal de Saúde do Adulto. MÉTODOS: O consumo de sódio e potássio foi obtido por dois métodos: questionário semi-quantitativo com 114 itens alimentares e excreção urinária de 12 horas noturnas. Estimativas de sódio e potássio obtidas pelo questionário foram ajustadas pela energia utilizando o método residual. A excreção urinária foi considerada válida se atendesse a três critérios: tempo de coleta, volume e excreção total de creatinina adequados. Foram estimadas médias dos nutrientes e calculada a correlação de Spearman. O consumo de sódio e potássio foi categorizado em quintis e foram calculados o kappa ponderado e o percentual de concordância. O nível de significância para todos os testes foi de 0,05. RESULTADOS: Foram analisados dados de 15,105 participantes e encontradas diferenças significativas entre médias de sódio (questionário: 4,5 ± 1,7 g; urina: 4,2 ± 2,1 g) e potássio (questionário: 4,7 ± 1,8 g; urina: 2,4 ± 1 g). Foi encontrada fraca concordância para sódio (K = 0,18) e potássio (K = 0,16). Percentuais de discordância entre métodos variaram de 41,8-44,5%; concordâncias exatas de 22,1-23,9%. CONCLUSÃO: A concordância entre o questionário de frequência alimentar e excreção urinária para avaliação do consumo de sódio e potássio foi modesta.

Systematic review of studies evaluating urinary iodine concentration as a predictor of 24-hour urinary iodine excretion for estimating population iodine intake / Revisión sistemática de estudios que evalúan la concentración urinaria de yodo como factor predictivo de la excreción urinaria de yodo de 24 horas para calcular la ingesta de yodo en la población

OBJECTIVE: To examine the usefulness of "spot" urine iodine concentrations (UICs) in predicting 24-hour urine iodine excretion (UIE) for estimating average population iodine intake. METHODS: An electronic literature search was conducted for articles published through 19 May 2013 in MEDLINE (from 1950), EMBASE (from 1980), and the Cochrane Library (from 1993) using the terms "urinary excretion (timed or spot or random) and (24 h or 24 hour), iodine (iodine deficiency), iodine (intake)," and "urine (timed, spot, random, 24-hour)." Full-text articles about studies that examined > 40 healthy human subjects and measured UIE using the 24-hour urine collection method and UIC and/or UIE using one alternative method (spot (random), timed, and "overnight" (first morning urine), fasting or not fasting) were selected and reviewed. RESULTS: The review included data from 1 434 participants across the six studies that met the inclusion criteria. The main statistical methods for comparing data from the 24-hour urine collections with the values obtained from the alternative method(s) were either regression (β) or correlation (r) coefficients and concordance analysis through Bland-Altman plots. The urine samples collected using the alternative methods were subject to greater intra-individual and inter-individual variability than the 24-hour urine collections. There was a wide range in coefficient values for the comparisons between 24-hour URE measured in 24-hour urine collection and 24-hour UIE estimated using the alternative sampling methods. No alternative sampling method (spot, timed, or "overnight") was appropriate for estimating 24-hour UIE. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this systematic review suggest current data on UICs as a means of predicting 24-hour UIE for estimating population sodium intake are inadequate and highlight the need for further methodological investigations.

OBJETIVO: Analizar la utilidad de la concentraciones urinarias de yodo en una muestra puntual de orina como predicción de la excreción urinaria de yodo de 24 horas para calcular la ingesta promedio de yodo en la población. MÉTODOS: Se realizó una búsqueda de bibliografía electrónica de artículos publicados hasta el 19 de mayo del 2013 en MEDLINE (desde 1950), EMBASE (desde 1980) y la Biblioteca Cochrane (desde 1993) que utilizaran los términos "urinary excretion (timed or spot or random) y (24 h or 24 hour)", "iodine (iodine deficiency)", "iodine (intake)", y "urine (timed, spot, random, 24-hour)" ("excreción urinaria [programada o puntual o aleatoria] y [24 h o 24 horas]", "yodo [carencia de yodo]", "yodo [ingesta]", y "orina [programada, puntual, aleatoria, 24 horas]"). Se seleccionaron y analizaron artículos de texto completo acerca de estudios que hubieran examinado como mínimo a 40 personas sanas y medido la excreción urinaria de yodo mediante la recolección de orina de 24 horas, y la concentración urinaria de yodo o la excreción urinaria de yodo mediante un método alternativo (recolección puntual [aleatoria], programada y "de toda la noche" [primera orina de la mañana], en ayunas o no). RESULTADOS: La revisión incluyó datos de 1 434 participantes de los seis estudios que reunieron los criterios de inclusión. Los principales métodos estadísticos utilizados para comparar los datos de las recolecciones de orina de 24 horas con los valores obtenidos a partir de los métodos alternativos fueron los coeficientes de regresión (β) o correlación (r) y los análisis de concordancia mediante el gráfico de Bland-Altman. Las muestras de orina recolectadas mediante métodos alternativos presentaron una mayor variabilidad interpersonal y para una misma persona que las recolecciones de orina de 24 horas. Se observó una amplia gama de valores de los coeficientes en las comparaciones entre la excreción urinaria de yodo de 24 horas medida mediante la recolección de orina de 24 horas y la excreción urinaria de yodo de 24 horas calculada mediante métodos de muestreo alternativos. Ningún método de muestreo alternativo (puntual, programado o "de toda la noche") resultó apropiado para calcular la excreción urinaria de yodo de 24 horas. CONCLUSIONES: Los resultados de esta revisión sistemática indican que los datos actuales en cuanto a la concentración urinaria de yodo como factor predictivo de la excreción urinaria de yodo de 24 horas para calcular la ingesta de yodo en la población son inadecuados y subrayan la necesidad de nuevas investigaciones metodológicas.

High Sodium Intake: Review of Recent Issues on Its Association with Cardiovascular Events and Measurement Methods

There has been a long-known association between high dietary sodium intake and hypertension, as well as the increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Reduction of sodium intake is a major challenge for public health. Recently, there have been several controversial large population-based studies regarding the current recommendation for dietary sodium intake. Although these studies were performed in a large population, they aroused controversies because they had a flaw in the study design and methods. In addition, knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of the methods is essential in order to obtain an accurate estimation of sodium intake. I have reviewed the current literatures on the association between sodium intake and cardiovascular events, as well as the methods for the estimation of sodium intake.

Prevalência e fatores associados à internação hospitalar para tratamento da infecção do trato urinário durante a gestação / Prevalence and associated factors with hospitalization for treatment of urinary tract infection during pregnancy

OBJETIVO: Verificar a prevalência e os fatores associados à internação hospitalar da gestante para tratamento da infecção do trato urinário e as repercussões sobre a saúde do recém-nascido e a não realização do exame de urina durante o pré-natal. MÉTODOS: Estudo de delineamento transversal, em que foram elegíveis todas as mães dos recém-nascidos dos partos ocorridos entre 1º de janeiro e 31 de dezembro de 2010 no município de Rio Grande (RS). As mães foram entrevistadas nas duas maternidades da cidade. Foram coletadas informações referentes à internação hospitalar para tratamento da infecção do trato urinário, à assistência pré-natal e às condições socioeconômicas. As análises estatísticas foram realizadas por níveis e controladas para fatores de confusão através da regressão de Poisson. RESULTADOS: Das 2.288 mulheres elegíveis para o estudo, 2,9% haviam sido internadas para tratamento da infecção do trato urinário e foi maior, após ajuste, em mulheres com menor nível econômico (3,1% no menor e 2,1% no maior), mais jovens (4,0% nas adolescentes e 1,8% naquelas com mais de 30 anos), com menor escolaridade (3,2% nas de ensino fundamental incompleto e 1,2% acima do ensino médio) e que não viviam com o companheiro (4,3% naquelas sem e 2,6% naquelas com). Quanto aos desfechos neonatais, esteve associado com a internação o baixo peso ao nascer (6,4% nas de baixo e 2,6% naquelas de peso normal). Das mulheres que frequentaram o pré-natal, 23,6% não haviam feito o exame de urina conforme o preconizado e, após ajuste, o risco de não realização foi maior naquelas com menor nível econômico (34,4% no menor nível e 14,4% no maior), menor escolaridade (35,2% nas de ensino fundamental incompleto e 11,0% acima do ensino médio) e que não viviam com o companheiro (32,7% naquelas sem e 22,0% naquelas com companheiro). CONCLUSÕES: A alta taxa de internação hospitalar reflete a falta de efetividade no rastreamento da infecção urinária durante a gestação. O perfil socioeconômico das gestantes que mais necessitam de hospitalização e que não realizaram rastreamento da infecção urinária adequado no pré-natal demonstra a necessidade de atenção mais cuidadosa às gestantes com as características encontradas.

PURPOSE: To determine the prevalence and associated factors of the hospitalization of pregnant women for treatment of urinary tract infection and the repercussions on the health of the newborn, and the absence of a urine exam during the prenatal period. METHODS: A cross-sectional design, where were eligible all mothers of newborns with births occurring between January 1st and December 31, 2010 in Rio Grande (RS). Mothers were interviewed in the two maternity hospitals in the city. Information was collected regarding hospitalization for urinary tract infection, the prenatal assistance and sociodemographic conditions. Statistical analyses were performed by levels and controlled for confounding using Poisson regression. RESULTS: Of the 2,288 women eligible for the study, 2.9% were hospitalized for treatment of urinary tract infection and was higher, after adjustment, in woman with lowest economic status (3.1% the lowest and 2.1% the highest), younger (4.0% in adolescents and 1.8% in those over 30 years), had less education (3.1% had seven years or less of studying and 1.2% had 12 years or more) and did not live with a partner (4.3% living without partner and 2.6% living with partner). Pathologies of the newborn associated with hospitalization, were preterm birth (4.1% in pre-term and 2.7% in those at term) and low birth weight (6.4% in low and 2.6% in those in normal). Of the women who underwent prenatal care, 23.6% had not done the urine test as recommended and, after adjustment, and the risk for not done the test was higher among those with lower socioeconomic status (34.4% in lower and 14.4% in the highest level), less educated (32.3% with seven years or less of studying and 11.0% with 12 years or more) and not living with a partner (32.7% living without partner and 22.0% living with partner). CONCLUSIONS: The high rate of hospitalization reflects the lack of effectiveness of screening for urinary tract infection during pregnancy. The socioeconomic profile of women who required hospitalization and who did not undergo adequate screening of urinary tract infection in prenatal care, demonstrate the need of more careful attention to pregnant women with the features found.

The Clinical Use of Routine Urinalysis

Routine urinalysis is a simple, economical, and useful test that facilitates the detection of urinary system diseases and monitoring of renal disease progression. It consists of 4 parts of specimen evaluation, gross examination, a dipstick urinalysis, and a sediment microscopic urinalysis. Urine specimens should first be evaluated in terms of acceptability, and thereafter, the gross appearance is examined for color, turbidity, and odor. In particular, a dipstick urinalysis is an easy and rapid test that provides information on the multiple physicochemical properties of the urine sample. Moreover, although a sediment microscopic urinalysis is time-consuming, it provides information on the cells, microorganisms, casts, and crystals. In the present report, the clinical significance of the routine urinalysis and the problems concerning interpretation are summarized.

El urocultivo: prueba ineludible para el diagnóstico específico de la infección del tracto urinario y el uso racional de los antibióticos / Urine culture: an unavoidable test for specific diagnosis of urinary tract infection and rational use of antibiotics

Resumen: las infecciones del tracto urinario son la tercera infección más frecuente que se presenta en el ser humano y la segunda razón por la cual se prescriben antibióticos. Los cultivos de las muestras de orina (urocultivos) son el cultivo más solicitado a los laboratorios de microbiología y continúan siendo la prueba de referencia para su diagnóstico. En este artículo de revisión se tratan aspectos como la etiología y la problemática de la resistencia a los principales antibióticos que se emplean de manera empírica para el tratamiento de las infecciones del tracto urinario adquiridas en la comunidad. Además, se analizan las pruebas de laboratorio básicas que apoyan el diagnóstico de esta infección; se detallan los aspectos relacionados con el urocultivo, desde el cuándo está indicado solicitarlo hasta el informe final y la interpretación de los resultados, con el fin de promover un uso racional de los antibióticos.De esta manera, además de contribuir a disminuir el efecto colateral del empleo de antibióticos, se mejora el costo-beneficio del proceso diagnóstico-tratamiento y lo fundamental, se recupera la salud del paciente.

Abstract: Urinary tract infections are the third most common infection among humans and the second cause for antibiotic prescription. Urine cultures are the most commonly requested type of culture to microbiology laboratories and this test remains as the gold standard for diagnosis. This article reviews aspects such as etiology of the infection and issues related with empiric antimicrobial utilization to treat community acquired urinary tract infections. In addition, basic laboratory tests that support the diagnosis of urinary tract infections are reviewed. The article will also describe aspects related to urine culture, from the moment this test is indicated until the final report and interpretation of results are issued by the laboratory, in order to promote rational use of antibiotics. The proposed approach will not only help to reduce collateral effects of antibiotic use, it may also improve the cost-benefit of the diagnosis-treatment process, and the most importantly, it may help in the recovery of the patient’s health.

Systematic review of studies comparing 24-hour and spot urine collections for estimating population salt intake / Revisión sistemática de estudios comparativos entre recolección de muestras de orina de 24 horas y puntual para calcular el consumo de sal en la población

Objective. To examine the usefulness of urine sodium (Na) excretion in spot or timed urine samples to estimate population dietary Na intake relative to the gold standard of 24-hour (h) urinary Na. Methods. An electronic literature search was conducted of MEDLINE (from 1950) and EMBASE (from 1980) as well as the Cochrane Library using the terms “sodium,” “salt,” and “urine.” Full publications of studies that examined 30 or more healthy human subjects with both urinary Na excretion in 24-h urine and one alternative method (spot, overnight, timed) were examined. Results. The review included 1 380 130 participants in 20 studies. The main statistical method for comparing 24-h urine collections with alternative methods was the use of a correlation coefficient. Spot, timed, and overnight urine samples were subject to greater intraindividual and interindividual variability than 24-h urine collections. There was a wide range of correlation coefficients between 24-h urine Na and other methods. Some values were high, suggesting usefulness (up to r = 0.94), while some were low (down to r = 0.17), suggesting a lack of usefulness. The best alternative to collecting 24-h urine (overnight, timed, or spot) was not clear, nor was the biological basis for the variability between 24-h and alternative methods. Conclusions. There is great interest in replacing 24-h urine Na with easier methods to assess dietary Na. However, whether alternative methods are reliable remains uncertain. More research, including the use of an appropriate study design and statistical testing, is required to determine the usefulness of alternative methods.

Objetivo. Analizar la utilidad de la medicion de la excrecion urinaria de sodio a partir de la recoleccion puntual o cronometrada de muestras de orina para calcular la ingesta de sodio alimentario en la poblacion, en relacion con la prueba de referencia que mide la excrecion de sodio en orina de 24 horas. Métodos. Se realizo una busqueda de bibliografia electronica en MEDLINE (desde 1950) y EMBASE (desde 1980), asi como en la Biblioteca Cochrane, empleando los terminos “sodium”, “salt” y “urine” (sodio, sal y orina). Se examinaron las publicaciones completas de los estudios que incluian 30 o mas sujetos humanos sanos en los que se hubiera determinado la excrecion de sodio mediante la recoleccion de orina de 24 horas o un metodo alternativo (recoleccion puntual, de toda la noche, cronometrada). Resultados. La revision incluyo a 1 380 130 participantes de 20 estudios. El principal metodo estadistico adoptado para comparar las recolecciones de orina de 24 horas con los metodos alternativos fue el uso de un coeficiente de correlacion (r). Las muestras de orina recolectadas de forma puntual, cronometrada y de toda la noche estaban sujetas a mayor variabilidad intra e interindividual que las recolecciones de orina de 24 horas. Se obtuvo una amplia gama de coeficientes de correlacion entre las determinaciones de sodio en orina de 24 horas y mediante los otros metodos. Algunos valores fueron elevados, lo que indica su utilidad (r de hasta 0,94), mientras que otros fueron bajos (r por debajo de 0,17), lo que indica su falta de utilidad. La mejor alternativa a la obtencion de orina de 24 horas (de toda la noche, cronometrada, o puntual) no resulto evidente, ni tampoco la base biologica de la variabilidad entre el metodo de 24 horas y los alternativos. Conclusiones. Hay mucho interes en remplazar la determinacion de sodio en orina de 24 horas por otros metodos mas faciles de evaluacion del sodio alimentario. Sin embargo, sigue habiendo incertidumbre sobre la fiabilidad de los metodos alternativos. Es preciso ampliar la investigacion, incluido el uso de un diseno de estudio y pruebas estadisticas apropiados, para determinar la utilidad de los metodos alternativos.

The validity of random urine specimen albumin measurement as a screening test for diabetic nephropathy

To assess the validity of urine albumin concentration (UAC) and the urine albumin:creatine ratio (UACR) in a random urine specimen (RUS) for screening diabetic nephropathy in Korea, a total of 105 ambulatory diabetes mellitus patients (male:female, 52:53), ages 40-75 years (median 59 years) collected 105 RUSs after completing a timed 24 hour urine collection. Albumin was measured by immunonephelometry. According to the timed urinary albumin excretion rate (UAER) measured in the 24 hour collection (criterion standard), samples were classified normoalbuminuric (UAER 200 micrograms/min; n = 25). The receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve of UAC and UACR in a RUS for screening of microalbuminuria (normo- and microalbuminuric samples; n = 80) and macroalbuminuria (micro- and macroalbuminuric samples; n = 55) were plotted. Pearson's coefficients of correlation of 24 hour UAER vs. UAC and UACR were 0.81 and 0.75, respectively (P < 0.001). The point of intersection with a 100%-to-100% diagonal for microalbuminuria were as follows: 31.0 mg/l for UAC and 32.5 mg/g for UACR; for macroalbuminuria 181 mg/l for UAC and 287.3 mg/g for UACR. The sensitivity and specificity of the cut-off points for microalbuminuria were 77% and 82% for UAC and 77% and 92% for UACR. The sensitivity and specificity of the cut-off points for macroalbuminuria were 84% and 90% for UAC and 88% and 90% for UACR. In present study, no difference was observed when comparing the performance of UAC and UACR based on a statistical comparison by McNemar test. The repeated measurements of UAC and UACR in the same individual were statistically similar and were correlated with each other. Based on these results, albumin measurements (UAC and UACR) in a RUS were considered as a valid test for screening diabetic nephropathy.