Costs associated with tuberculosis diagnosis and treatment in Yemen for patients and public health services

This study determined the costs associated with tuberculosis [TB] diagnosis and treatment for the public health services and patients in Sana'a, Yemen. Data were collected prospectively from 320 pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB patients [160 each] who were followed until completion of treatment. Direct medical and nonmedical costs and indirect costs were calculated. The proportionate cost to the patients for pulmonary TB and extrapulmonary TB was 76.1% and 89.4% respectively of the total for treatment. The mean cost to patients for pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB treatment was US$ 108.4 and US$ 328.0 respectively. The mean cost per patient to the health services for pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB treatment was US$ 34.0 and US$ 38.8 respectively. For pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB, drug treatment represented 59.3% and 77.9% respectively of the total cost to the health services. The greatest proportionate cost to patients for pulmonary TB treatment was time away from work [67.5% of the total cost], and for extrapulmonary TB was laboratory and X-ray costs [55.5%] followed by transportation [28.6%]

Inmunizaciones y equidad en el Plan Regional del Sistema Mesoamericano de Salud Pública / Immunization and equity in the Regional Initiative of the Mesoamerican Health Initiative

Las cifras nacionales de inmunización indican altas coberturas de vacunación en Mesoamérica, sin embargo, hay evidencia creciente de que los grupos más vulnerables no son alcanzados por los programas de vacunación. La planeación de este proyecto se llevó a cabo entre junio y diciembre de 2009. La ejecución del proyecto se llevará a cabo en la población objetivo seleccionada a partir de junio de 2011. Está integrada por niños menores de cinco años y mujeres en edad fértil de las poblaciones más vulnerables en los países de Mesoamérica, identificadas geográficamente por un bajo índice de desarrollo humano o por la alta prevalencia de pobreza en el ámbito municipal, o a través del uso de métodos participativos para definir pobreza y vulnerabilidad en contextos locales. El Grupo de Trabajo ha definido tres líneas de acción para las intervenciones de enfermedades prevenibles por vacunación, para lograr una mejor cobertura efectiva en poblaciones vulnerables: 1) estudios piloto de coberturas para vacíos de conocimiento, 2) fortalecimiento de las políticas de vacunación, 3) ejecución de prácticas basadas en evidencia. El fortalecimiento de los sistemas de salud bajo la óptica de equidad en salud es el objetivo regional central del Grupo de Trabajo en inmunizaciones enfocado en un aumento de la cobertura efectiva.

National immunization rates indicate high vaccine coverage in Mesoamerica, but there is growing evidence that the most vulnerable groups are not being reached by immunization programs. Therefore, there is likely low effective vaccine coverage in the region, leading to persistent and growing health inequity. The planning phase of this project was from June to December 2009. The project will be conducted in the target populations which includes children under five, pregnant women, and women of child-bearing age from the most vulnerable populations within countries of the Mesoamerican region, as indicated geographically by a low human development index (HDI) and/or high prevalence of poverty at the municipal level and through the use of participatory methods to define poverty and vulnerability in local contexts. We defined three lines of action for vaccine-preventable disease interventions: 1) pilot projects to fill gaps in knowledge; 2) strengthening immunization policy; and 3) implementation of evidence-based practices. Health system strengthening through health equity is the central regional objective of the immunization workgroup. We hope to have a transformational impact on health systems so as to improve effective coverage, including vaccine and other integrated primary healthcare services.

Governança local no sistema descentralizado de saúde no Brasil / Local governance in the decentralized health care system in Brazil

OBJETIVO: Analisar as mudanças decorrentes do processo de descentralização do Sistema Único de Saúde na governança do setor saúde no âmbito do poder local entre 1996 e 2006. MÉTODOS: Um questionário foi aplicado aos gestores municipais de saúde de todo o Brasil em 1996 e novamente em 2006. Foram coletadas informações sobre as características de inovação da gestão em três dimensões: social, gerencial e assistencial. O presente artigo analisa resultados referentes à dimensão social da gestão (relação entre a gestão municipal e os diferentes atores da sociedade) a partir de quatro atributos: elaboração do orçamento (qual o grau de influência de atores variados), estabelecimento de prioridades, prestação de contas e fluxo de informações para a sociedade. RESULTADOS: Aumentou a influência dos secretários e dos conselhos municipais de saúde na elaboração do orçamento, em detrimento da influência dos políticos locais. Na definição de prioridades em saúde, reduziu-se a solicitação dos políticos locais e a demanda espontânea e fortaleceram-se o parecer do corpo técnico e as propostas dos conselhos e das conferências de saúde. Observa-se a institucionalização da prática de prestação de contas em virtude da diversificação do conjunto de atores a que se direciona (especialmente câmara de vereadores e conselho de saúde) e dos mecanismos utilizados, embora continue prevalecendo o uso de balancete periódico (que implica em conhecimento técnico para interpretação dos resultados). Por fim, as informações oferecidas à população ainda se referem acima de tudo às ações e campanhas de saúde e ao funcionamento de serviços, embora tenha crescido a divulgação de informações inovadoras à sociedade. Esse padrão se observa em todas as regiões e portes populacionais, com tendências mais progressivas na região Sul. CONCLUSÕES: A relação entre estado e sociedade modificou-se em direção a um padrão mais democrático de governança local, embora tenham sido mantidas práticas governamentais concentradoras de poder na tomada de decisão. O processo de descentralização ainda encontra obstáculos importantes para a concretização de um modelo de maior participação, controle social, responsabilização e interação entre Estado e sociedade.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the changes in local health care governance resulting from the decentralization process associated with the Unified Health System (SUS) in Brazil between 1996 and 2006. METHODS: A questionnaire was answered in 1996 and again in 2006 by all city officials involved in health care management in Brazil. Information was collected on the innovative characteristics of administrative practices in terms of three dimensions: social, management, and care. The present article analyzes the results relating to the social dimension (relationship between municipal officials and the various community actors) according to four attributes: preparing the budget (degree of influence of various actors), establishing priorities, accountability, and flow of information to the community. RESULTS: The influence of municipal secretaries of health and health councils on budget preparation has increased, with a decrease of local politician influence. In prioritizing health issues, local politicians and spontaneous demands have also become less influential, with strengthening of the influence of technical opinions and proposals by health councils and conferences. Public disclosure of results has become institutionalized as a result of the diversification of stakeholders (especially municipal secretaries and health councils) and of the methods available for disclosure, even though balance sheets are still the most common type of information disclosed (which imply technical knowledge for interpretation of results). Finally, the information conveyed to the community still mainly refers to health actions and campaigns and functioning of health services, even though a larger amount of innovative information is being communicated. This was observed in all regions and in cities of all sizes, with a more progressive trend in the South of Brazil. CONCLUSIONS: The relationship between government and society has changed toward a more democratic standard of local governance, despite the maintenance of centralized government decision-making practices. The process of decentralization still faces important obstacles to the establishment of a more participative model, with enhanced social control, accountability and interaction between government and society.

Costo de oportunidad en hombres que acuden a las unidades de medicina familiar en la ciudad de Querétaro, México / Opportunity cost for men who visit family medicine units in the city of Querétaro, Mexico

OBJETIVO: Determinar el costo de oportunidad en hombres que solicitan atención en las unidades de medicina familiar (UMF) del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) en la ciudad de Querétaro. MÉTODOS: Se seleccionó una muestra de 807 hombres de 20 a 59 años de edad que solicitaban atención en los servicios de medicina familiar, laboratorio y farmacia, proporcionados por UMF del IMSS en Querétaro. Se excluyeron los pacientes referidos a urgencias y los que se retiraron sin recibir atención. La muestra (n = 807) se calculó mediante la fórmula de promedios para población infinita, con un intervalo de confianza de 95 por ciento (IC95 por ciento) y un costo de oportunidad promedio de US$ 5,5 para medicina familiar, US$ 3,1 para laboratorio y de US$ 2,3 para farmacia. Las estimaciones incluyeron el tiempo invertido en traslado, espera y atención; el número de acompañantes, y el costo del minuto para la actividad remunerada y no remunerada. El costo de oportunidad se calculó a través del costo por minuto estimado para traslado, espera y atención de pacientes y acompañantes. RESULTADOS: El costo de oportunidad correspondiente al traslado del paciente se estimó en US$ 0,97 (IC95 por ciento: 0,81-1,15), mientras que el de espera fue de US$ 5,03 (IC95 por ciento: 4,08-6,09) en medicina familiar, US$ 0,06 (IC95 por ciento: 0,05-0,08) en farmacia y US$ 1,89 (IC95 por ciento: 1,56- 2,25) en laboratorio. El costo de oportunidad promedio cuando el paciente acudió sin compañía osciló entre US$ 1,10 para el servicio de farmacia solo y US$ 8,64 para medicina familiar, farmacia y laboratorio. El costo de oportunidad ponderado para medicina familiar fue de US$ 6,24. CONCLUSIONES: Dado que el costo de oportunidad de los hombres que demandan servicios en las unidades de medicina familiar corresponde a más de la mitad de un salario mínimo, desde el enfoque institucional correspondería establecer si esa es la mejor alternativa de atención.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the opportunity cost for men who seek care in the family medicine units (FMU) of the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social) in the city of Querétaro. METHODS: A sample was selected of 807 men, ages 20 to 59 years, who sought care through the family medicine, laboratory, and pharmacy services provided by the FMU at the IMSS in Querétaro. Patients referred for emergency services and those who left the facilities without receiving care were excluded. The sample (n = 807) was calculated using the averages for an infinite population formula, with a confidence interval of 95 percent (CI95 percent) and an average opportunity cost of US$5.5 for family medicine, US$3.1 for laboratory services, and US$2.3 for pharmacy services. Estimates included the amount of time spent on travel, waiting, and receiving care; the number of people accompanying the patient, and the cost per minute of paid and unpaid job activities. The opportunity cost was calculated using the estimated cost per minute for travel, waiting, and receiving care for patients and their companions. RESULTS: The opportunity cost for the patient travel was estimated at US$0.97 (CI95 percent: 0.81-1.15), while wait time was US$5.03 (CI95 percent: 4.08-6.09) for family medicine, US$0.06 (CI95 percent: 0.05-0.08) for pharmacy services, and US$1.89 (CI95 percent: 1.56-2.25) for laboratory services. The average opportunity cost for an unaccompanied patient visit varied between US$1.10 for pharmacy services alone and US$8.64 for family medicine, pharmacy, and laboratory services. The weighted opportunity cost for family medicine was US$6.24. CONCLUSIONS: Given that the opportunity cost for men who seek services in FMU corresponds to more than half of a minimum salary, it should be examined from an institutional perspective whether this is the best alternative for care.

Community-directed interventions for priority health problems in Africa: results of a multicountry study

Objective To determine the extent to which the community-directed approach used in onchocerciasis control in Africa could effectively and efficiently provide integrated delivery of other health interventions.Methods A three-year experimental study was undertaken in 35 health districts from 2005 to 2007 in seven research sites in Cameroon; Nigeria and Uganda. Four trial districts and one comparison district were randomly selected in each site. All districts had established ivermectin treatment programmes; and in the trial districts four other established interventions - vitamin A supplementation; use of insecticide-treated nets; home management of malaria and short-course; directly-observed treatment for tuberculosis patients - were progressively incorporated into a community-directed intervention (CDI) process. At the end of each of the three study years; we performed quantitative evaluations of intervention coverage and provider costs; as well as qualitative assessments of the CDI process. Findings With the CDI strategy; significantly higher coverage was achieved than with other delivery approaches for all interventions except for short-course; directly-observed treatment. The coverage of malaria interventions more than doubled. The district-level costs of delivering all five interventions were lower in the CDI districts; but no cost difference was found at the first-line health facility level. Process evaluation showed that: (i) participatory processes were important; (ii) recurrent problems with the supply of intervention materials were a major constraint to implementation; (iii) the communities and community implementers were deeply committed to the CDI process; (iv) community implementers were more motivated by intangible incentives than by external financial incentives. Conclusion The CDI strategy; which builds upon the core principles of primary health care; is an effective and efficient model for integrated delivery of appropriate health interventions at the community level in Africa

O Programa de Agentes Comunitários de Saúde adaptado à cidade do Rio de Janeiro: uma análise das suas concepções / Health Community Agent’s program adapted to the city of Rio de Janeiro: na analysis of its conceptions

Este trabalho trata de um estudo sobre uma experiência de adaptação do modelo Programa de Agentes Comunitários de Saúde, executado pela Coordenação de Saúde da Comunidade, da Secretaria Municipal de Saúde do Rio de Janeiro, no período de 2002 a 2005, que se coloca com certa divergência ao projeto político do Ministério da Saúde. Propõe-se a apresentar o contexto em que surge essa proposta e identificar e analisar as concepções da sua formulação. Poucos foram os documentos oficiais disponíveis para este estudo, transformando as entrevistas na técnica primordial para a realização do mesmo. Verificamos que havia um vazio de formulação de uma política de mudança da atenção básica para a cidade e, dessa forma, a oportunidade para formulações técnicas de modelos experimentais se colocou. Nesse cenário, surge a proposta da implantação de equipes de PACS, como uma tentativa de dar resposta aos obstáculos colocados à expansão da ESF, sendo aproveitado para ser adaptado de forma a aumentar a oferta de ações da atenção básica, nas áreas consideradas estratégicas pela NOAS 01/01.

Disability Evaluation in Japan

To examine the current state and social ramifications of disability evaluation in Japan, public data from Annual Reports on Health and Welfare 1998-1999 were investigated. All data were analyzed based on the classification of disabilities and the effects of age-appropriate welfare services, which have been developed through a half-century of legislative efforts to support disability evaluation. These data suggest that disability evaluation, while essentially affected by age and impairment factors at a minimum, was impacted more by the assistive environment for disabilities. The assistive environment was found to be closely linked with the welfare support system related to a global assessment in the field of community-based rehabilitation.

Análise da viabilidade econômica da unidade móvel de um serviço de referência em oftalmologia / Analysis of economic viability of a mobile eye clinic of a referral ophthalmology service

OBJETIVO: Analisar a viabilidade econômica da Unidade Móvel de um Serviço de Referência terciária em Oftalmologia. MÉTODOS: Foi considerado o montante gasto com a sua compra e construção no ano 2000 e as despesas com a sua manutenção e funcionamento no ano 2001, comparando-se com a receita gerada a partir de consultas, exames complementares e cirurgias oculares do Sistema Unico de Saúde no ano 2001. Para fins de análise econômica, determinou-se uma taxa de juros de 10 por cento ao ano e um período de depreciação de 10 anos. RESULTADOS: O valor total para aquisição e montagem da Unidade Móvel do Hospital Oftalmológico de Sorocaba foi de R$ 184.140,00. O montante gasto com despesas para a sua manutenção e funcionamento durante o ano 2001 foi de R$ 28.000,00. A Unidade funcionou, em média, durante 2 dias por semana no ano 2001 e foram realizadas, nesse período, 6.492 consultas, estabelecendo-se uma receita de R$ 32.460,00. As consultas geraram exames complementares e cirurgias oculares, contabilizando-se R$ 51.540,00. Portanto, a receita obtida diretamente com as consultas, exames complementares e cirurgias durante o ano 2001 foi R$ 84.000,00, pagos pelo Sistema Unico de Saúde, de acordo com valores pré-estabelecidos. A partir desses valores é possível uma análise econômica do empreendimento e esta foi feita com e sem poupança para depreciação, levando-se em consideração as despesas e as receitas. CONCLUSÃO: Além de prestar atendimento a comunidades carentes e distantes, uma Unidade Móvel pode ser fonte de renda para um Serviço de Oftalmologia.

Community ophthalmology in the Indian perspective.

Community ophthalmology is as important as practice of clinical ophthalmology. Community ophthalmology deals the part of ophthalmology which is meant for identifying common causes of ocular morbidity in different regions, assessing the needs of the population, selecting appropriate intervention strategies, planning education programmes and analysing the utilisation patterns. Community ophthalmology denotes the use of appropriate strategies to reduce the burden of eye diseases in the community and the consequences of ocular ill health, while striving to ensure the best possible ocular health status for a major proportion of the community. Community-based services do not mean that institutional care is being downgraded. Institutions will always be central to the success of community-directed programme. The rational for practising community ophthalmology has been pointed in the text portion.

Cost of delivering child immunization services in urban Bangladesh: a study based on facility-level surveys.

This facility-based study estimated the costs of providing child immunization services in Dhaka, Bangladesh, from the perspective of healthcare providers. About a quarter of all immunization (EPI) delivery sites in Dhaka city were surveyed during 1999. The EPI services in urban Dhaka are delivered through a partnership of the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). About 77% of the EPI delivery sites in Dhaka were under the management of NGOs, and 62% of all vaccinations were provided through these sites. The outreach facilities (both GoB and NGO) provided immunization services at a much lower cost than the permanent static facilities. The average cost per measles-vaccinated child (MVC), an indirect measure of number of children fully immunized (FIC-the number of children immunized by first year of life), was 11.61 U.S. dollars. If all the immunization doses delivered by the facilities were administered to children who were supposed to be immunized (FVC), the cost per child would have been 6.91 U.S. dollars. The wide gap between the cost per MVC and the cost per FVC implies that the cost of immunizing children can be reduced significantly through better targeting of children. The incremental cost of adding new services or interventions with current EPI was quite low, not significantly higher than the actual cost of new vaccines or drugs to be added. NGOs in Dhaka mobilized about 15,000 U.S. dollars from the local community to support the immunization activities. Involving local community with EPI activities not only will improve the sustainability of the programme but will also increase the immunization coverage.

Quantitative analysis on economic contribution of community health service in China / 华中科技大学学报（医学）（英德文版）

In China, the implementation of community health service shows that the prevention is an essential and important part of our national health system and is helpful to decrease the medical expenditure gradually. According to the data from Health Statistic Information Center of Ministry of Health in China, we calculated that the total health expenditure of China would be decreased 8000.0 million yuan only in 2001, among which, 1188.3 million, 1953.9 million and 4833.0 million yuan were respectively saved for the government budget, the society and resident if implementing the policy of community health service powerfully. And every outpatient can save 15.46 yuan per time. By the quantitative analysis on the economic contribution of community health service, it can be proved that a great economic benefit could be gotten from the implementation of community health service.

Piodermias en el medio trópico-rural: factores de riesgo y costos de atención / Pyodermas in tropical rural environment: risk factors and costs of attention

Se ralizó un estudio transversal para determinar la prevalencia de las enfermedades piógenicas de la piel en el medio rural, su asociación a factores de riesgo y costo por atención. Se encuestaron un total de 211 casas con una población de 1,387 personas; se encontró una prevalencia del 6 por ciento de piodermias; sobre los factores de riesgo estudiados, se encontró que una persona que convive con otros pacientes con esta dermatosis tiene más de seis vece el riesgo de tener la enfermedad comparada con otra que no refirió este antecente (RR 6.6, RD 0.12 Xmh 5.6); se utilizó un modelo de regresión logística donde se incluyeron varios factores de manera simultánea

El médico familiar en la atención primaria a la salud / Family physician in primary health attention

La atención primaria a la salud es la estrategia más viable para elevar el nivel de salud de la población en los países con condiciones socieconómicas precarias. Existen múltiples barreras para su implantación, una de las principales es el profesional médico, que basado en falsas creencias y en su escasa preparación como docente ha limitado el logro de los objetivos. Se destaca la importancia de la labor educativa del médico en materia de salud y la relación de esta acción con el logro de la participación comunitaria

Los servicios de salud y las comunidades Indígenas / The services of health and the indigenous communities

La Tésis Servicios de Salud y Comunidades Indígenas, trata de demostrar la incogruencia que existe entre el modelo de salud oficial y la realidad indígena de nuestro país.El propósito fundamental del presente trabajo es de aportar conocimientos y estimular reflexiones sobre la situación del Indio, de modo que puedan ser utilizados en la elaboración de políticas de salud encaminadas a este sector; o en investigaciones socio-culturales de mayor profundidad.El presente trabajo se realizó en Yanahurco Grande, comunidad indígena de altura de la provincia de Cotopaxi. Se emplearon técnicas de investigación de fuente directa (documental), y directas como entrevistas, observación participante, reuniones focales y estudio de caso de una familia tipo de la comunidad

La division de salud comunitaria de la Fundacion Santa Fe de Bogota / Community health section of Fundacion Santa Fe de Bogota

La presente publicacion describe la division de Salud Comunitaria de la Funcacion Santa Fe de Bogota, y cada uno de sus departamentos a saber: departamento de desarrollo comunitario, de atencion de la salud, de educacion en salud a la comunidad, y de investigacion y proyectos. Esta division se encarga de hacer proyeccion social a la comunidad que esta bajo la influencia de la Fundacion, cobijando los barrios marginados del nor-oriente de Bogota. Estos programas buscan la integracion y coordinacion de los recursos existentes para mejorar la atencion de salud de la comunidad. La estrategia principal del programa es la participacion de la comunidad en el proceso de diagnostico, planeacion, ejecucion y evaluacion de los programas, como tambien el trabajo en equipo formado por un grupo interdisciplinario, en el cual participan profesionales de ciencias sociales y de la salud, formacion de agentes voluntarios de salud, capacitacion de capacitadores para fortalecer areas de atencian primaria de salud.

Los establecimientos ambulatorios de salud en Venezuela: organización, funcionamiento y situación actual 1985; informe final / The ambulatory health institution in Venezuela organization, function and present status 1985; final report

Se elaboró el presente trabajo con el propósito de incrementar los conocimientos en relación a los establecimientos de salud en Venezuela, con miras a mejorar su eficiencia y equidad, y facilitar la formulación de políticas y planes de salud en cuanto a la atención de primer y segundo nivel en el sistema sanitario