Cost of treatment among self-referred outpatients in referral hospitals compared to primary health care facilities in East Wollega, western Ethiopia: a comparative cross-sectional study

Patient self-referral is a condition when patients refer themselves to higher level health facilities without having to see anyone else first. Despite the expansion in the number of health facilities, it has been seen when patients routinely accessed referral hospitals without a formal referral. The study aims to evaluate cost of treatment among self-referred outpatients at referral hospitals compared to primary health care facilities. Comparative cross-sectional study design was used and the required sample size for the study was determined by using formula of double populations mean comparison cost of treatment for diseases leading to outpatient visits. A total of 794 participants (397 from referral hospital and 397 from primary health facilities) were included in the study. Data was collected using face-to-face interview from December 1 to 30, 2017. Data entry and analysis were made using SPSS version 20. Descriptive statistics and independent samples t-test were performed. A total of 783 outpatients responded to the interview of the study and 391 of them were from referral hospital and 392 from primary health facilities. The mean of outpatient visit cost per visit for the treatment of diseases leading to outpatient visits was significantly higher at referral hospitals compared to primary health facilities [95% CI=6.13 (5.07-7.18)] USD. The mean cost of outpatient visits for the treatment of all type of diseases leading to outpatient visits was significantly higher at referral hospitals and at least two times of primary level health facilities. Health care providers should create awareness in the community about referral linkages to inform patients and their families the additional costs they incur when they bypass the proximal primary health facilities

Prevalence and determinants of self-directed referrals amongst patients at hospitals in eThekwini District, KwaZulu-Natal 2015

Background: Non-compliance with designated referral pathways has ramifications such as increased patient waiting time,overburdening of higher levels of care and increasing healthcare costs on patients and the healthcare system. The purposeof this study was to assess the determinants of self-directed referrals amongst patients attending hospitals in the eThekwini district of KwaZulu-Natal.Methods: An analytic, cross-sectional study was conducted at the Medical Outpatient Departments across five district hospitals in eThekwini using interviewer-administered questionnaires. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the proportion and the most frequent factors contributing towards patient self-referral. The likelihood of patients to self-refer was tested using chisquare (X2) and a multivariate regression model.Results: There were 315 patients interviewed with 35% (n = 109/315) having self-referred. The majority (51%; 55/107) of selfreferrals were male and were of African race (74%; n = 80/107). Five institutional factors, namely:availability of medication at the pharmacy (98%); quality of care at the facility (93%); waiting time at facility (92%); services provided (90%); and attitude of healthcare workers (87%), were ranked as the main drivers of self-referral. Multivariate logistic regression established a significant positive association between patient self-referral and male gender (OR 1.73; CI 1.04­2.87, p < 0.05). Age < 39 years (OR 0.96; CI 0.94­0.99, p < 0.05); and patient awareness of a referral letter (OR 0.28; CI 0.09­0.86, p < 0.05) emerged as protective factor against self-referrals.Conclusion: Males patients tend to bypass the referral pathway whilst younger patients and patients who were aware of a referral letter were less likely to bypass the referral system. In addition to addressing the systemic challenges of waiting times, quality of care and availability of medication, a patient-oriented approach that comprises education, encouragement and increased patient awareness is an important strategy to improve referral pathway compliance

Conflictos de intereses en nefrología / Conflicts of interest in nephrology

Since doctors disposed of effective tools to serve their patients, they had to worry about the proper management of available resources and how to deal with the relationship with the industry that provides such resources. In this relation­ship, health professionals may be involved in conflicts of interest that they need to acknowledge and learn how to handle. This article discusses the conflicts of interest in nephrology. Its objectives are to identify those areas where such conflicts could occur; to help to solve them, always considering the best interest of patients; and to help health workers to keep in mind that they have to preserve their autonomy and professional integrity. Conflicts of interest of professionals in the renal area and related scientific societies, with the industry producing equipment, supplies and drugs are reviewed. Dichotomy, payment for referral, self-referral of patients and incentives for cost control are analyzed. Finally, recommendations to help preserve a good practice in nephrology are made.

Effect of referral for dental service on dental-service utilization by primary school children aged 8 to 11 years in Enugu, Nigeria

Aim: To determine how one dental education session and referral of study participants aged 8-11 years would affect utilization of oral-health care services. Methods: This descriptive prospective study recruited 1,406 pupils aged 8-11 years from randomly selected primary schools in Enugu metropolis. All pupils received one oral-health education and referral letters for treatment. Data were collected on the pupils' socio-demographic profile, family structure, and history of oral-health care utilization in the 12 months preceding the study and within 12 months of receipt of referral letter. The effect of these factors as predictors of past and recent dental service utilization was determined using logistic regression. Results: Only 4.3% of the study participants had ever used oral-health services in the 12 months prior to the study. Within 12 months of issuing the referral letters, 9.0% of pupils used the oral-health services. Children from middle (AOR: 0.46; CI: 0.29-0.73; p=0.001) and low socioeconomic strata (AOR: 0.21; CI: 0.11-0.39; p<0.001) and those living with relatives/guardians (AOR: 0.08, CI: 0.01-0.56; p=0.01) were still less likely to have utilized oral-health services. Conclusions: Referral of children for oral-health care increased the number of children who utilized oral health care services (Au)

Características demográficas de pacientes con enfermedad de pie-mano-boca. Serie de casos atípicos / Demographic characteristics of patients with hand-foot-and-mouth disease. Atypical cases series

La enfermedad de pie-mano-boca es un exantema frecuente en la niñez. Se han descrito varios tipos de lesiones de distribución generalizada en casos atípicos, aunque los datos sobre la predilección respecto de la localización de estas lesiones son insuficientes. Nuestro objetivo fue describir las características demográficas de los pacientes con esta enfermedad y caracterizar las localizaciones de las lesiones en pacientes con erupciones atípicas, tratadas en un centro ambulatorio de dermatología de un hospital pediátrico, entre noviembre de 2011 y agosto de 2013. Se incluyen a 67 pacientes en el estudio. La edad media de los pacientes fue de 34 meses con predominio de varones (60%). Todos los pacientes tuvieron erupciones en la boca, las manos y los pies. Los niños <24 meses se vieron afectados en la zona cubierta por el pañal y las extremidades, con un compromiso significativamente mayor en los que tenían entre 24 y 48 meses y en los >48 meses (p <0,0001 y p= 0,011, respectivamente). Ninguno de los pacientes tuvo complicaciones sistémicas graves.

Hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) is a common childhood exanthem. Various types of lesions and widespread distribution in atypical cases have been described, but data on the predilection of lesion localizations in atypical cases are insufficient. We aimed to describe the demographic features of patients with HFMD, and to characterize lesion localizations in patients with atypical eruptions treated at an outpatient dermatology clinic of a pediatric hospital, between November 2011 and August 2013.The study included 67 patients. Mean age of the patients was 34 months and there was a male predominance (60%). All the patients had eruptions on hands, feet, and mouth. Children aged <24 months had involvement of the diaper area and extremities, which was significantly higher than those aged 24-48 months and >48 months (P < 0.0001 and P= 0.011, respectively). None of the patients had serious systemic complications.

Patient views for self-referral to specialists

Except in emergency cases, all patients should be seen first by a primary healthcare physician who decides whether a referral to secondary care is necessary. The present study examined the reasons for patient self-referral to specialists. A random sample of 1036 individuals was selected from people attending public outpatient clinics and specialists' offices in the private health sector. Of the sample, 40% were insured by the closed loop referral; 14% by the semi-closed-loop referral; and 46% were open referral. The data were analysed using X[2] statistical test. Of the closed-loop referral system patients, 6.8% were self-referred, as were 29.7% of semi-closed referral system patients and 75.5% of open referral system patients. There was a significant association between insurance type and patient self-referral to specialty care [X[2] = 504; P< 0.0001]. The main reasons patients gave for by-passing GPs and self-referring to specialists were: the specialist"s high degree of skill in the specific area of the health problem [54%]; waste of time to see the GP for a referral [14.9%]. The findings of this study demonstrate the high degree of difference in the rates of referral by GP and self-referral according to the healthcare delivery system

Intercambialidade de medicamentos: abordagem clínica e o ponto de vista do consumidor / Drug interchangeability: clinical approach and consumer's point of view

A construção racional do arsenal terapêutico, considerando a necessidade do paciente, a segurança e a disponibilidade do medicamento, e o melhor custo-benefício pressupõem embasamento na tríade: segurança, eficácia e qualidade. Mas na prática diária, a efetividade do medicamento é o que mais influencia a decisão do prescritor, que considera critérios que aumentem a adesão ao tratamento, tais como toxicidade relativa, conveniência de administração, custo e experiência de emprego. A entrada no mercado de novas moléculas para mesmos fins terapêuticos, acompanhada de grande publicidade, interfere no processo decisório do prescritor, assim como práticas de bonificações da indústria para venda nos balcões das farmácias repercutem na decisão de compra do paciente. O confronto entre a conhecida variabilidade biológica dos seres humanos e a não similaridade absoluta entre medicamentos da mesma classe terapêutica ou mesmo medicamentos genéricos, tem impacto na lista individualizada de medicamentos, que deve englobar os conceitos de droga de primeira escolha e segunda escolha. O desconhecimento desta discussão por parte dos prescritores é determinante do uso irracional de medicamentos, um problema de saúde publica. Assim, o objetivo do trabalho foi apresentar aos prescritores de medicamentos informações que possam auxiliar na construção mais racional do arsenal terapêutico utilizado para seus pacientes, com base em experiência na regulação de medicamentos da Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária.

The rational construction of an essential drug list, considering the patient's need, drug safety, availability and the best cost-benefit ratio, is based on drug safety, efficacy and quality. However, in daily practice, the prescriber's decision is mostly influenced by drug effectiveness, following criteria that increase adherence to the treatment, such as relative drug toxicity, convenience, cost and prescriber's experience. In addition, frequent launching of new molecules for the same therapeutic indication, together with wide publicity targeting prescribers, interferes with the decision-making process. Similarly, the bonuses offered by the industry for over-the-counter drug sales interfere with the consumer's choice. The confrontation between known human biological variability and the knowledge that there is no absolute similarity between drugs of the same therapeutic class, or even generic drugs, has an impact on the prescriber's drug list, which should include the concept of first and second choice drugs. Prescribers' unfamiliarity with these subjects is a determinant factor for irrational drug use: a public health issue. The objective of this study was to introduce to drug prescribers information that can help them building up a rational drug list for their patients, based on the National Health Surveillance Agency (Anvisa) experience of drug regulation.

Statistical process control for referrals by general practitioner at health insurance organization clinics in Alexandria

Quality control is the application of statistical techniques to a process in an effort to identify and minimize both random and non-random sources of variation. The present study aimed at the application of Statistical Process Control [SPC] to analyze the referrals by General Practitioners [GP] at Health Insurance Organization [HIO] clinics in Alexandria. Retrospective analysis of records and cross sectional interview to 180 GPs were done. Using the control charts [p chart], the present study confirmed the presence of substantial variation in referral rates from GPs to specialists; more than 60% of variation was of the special cause, which revealed that the process of referral in Alexandria [HIO] was completely out of statistical control. Control charts for referrals by GPs classified by different GP characteristics or organizational factors revealed much variation, which suggested that the variation was at the level of individual GPs. Furthermore, the p chart for each GP separately; which yielded a fewer number of points out of control [outliers], with an average of 4 points. For 26 GPs, there was no points out of control, those GPs were slightly older than those having points out of control. Otherwise, there was no significant difference between them. The revised p chart for those 26 GPs together yielded a centerline of 9.7%, upper control limit of 12.0% and lower control limit of 7.4%. Those limits were in good agreement with the limits specified by HIO; they can be suggested to be the new specification limits after some training programs

Pertinencia de remisiones generadas en la red adscrita de la Secretaría Distrital de Salud de Bogotá / Relevance of referrals generated in the network of the District Health Secretariat of Bogota

Objetivos La pertinencia en las remisiones de pacientes del Distrito Capital, generadas por los servicios de consulta externa, urgencia y hospitalización de 32 empresas sociales del Estado (ESE). Caracterizar los procesos involucrados con la referencia y contrarreferencia de pacientes pertenecientes al régimen subsidiado o vinculado del Distrito Capital. Metodología Se realizó un estudio transversal, recolectándose información de 1,513 remisiones. Se estableció la pertinencia en la decisión médica de acuerdo con la capacidad técnica de la IPS para atender adecuadamente la enfermedad del paciente. En el análisis cualitativo se realizó un estudio tipo teoría, partiendo de las experiencias de los usuarios y los prestadores de servicios. Resultados El 80% de las remisiones fueron pertinentes en la decisión médica y el 20% no. El direccionamiento fue adecuado en el 50.4% de las remisiones y no adecuado en el 49.6%. Las remisiones efectivas fueron el 53.1% del total. Conclusiones Los problemas en la decisión de la remisión y la baja proporción de adecuación en el direccionamiento evidencian problemas en la decisión médica, coordinación y comunicación deficiente, falta de definición de procedimientos y ausencia de sistemas de evaluación periódica.

Objectives The relevance of referrals of patients from the Capital District, generated by the outpatient, emergency and hospitalization services of 32 social enterprises of the State (ESE). To characterize the processes involved with the referral and counter-referral of patients belonging to the subsidized or linked regime of the Capital District. Methodology A cross-sectional study was carried out, collecting information from 1,513 referrals. The relevance of the medical decision was established according to the technical capacity of the IPS to adequately attend the patient's disease. In the qualitative analysis, a theory-type study was carried out, based on the experiences of users and service providers. Results Eighty percent of the referrals were pertinent in the medical decision and 20% were not. Referrals were appropriate in 50.4% of referrals and not appropriate in 49.6%. Effective referrals were 53.1% of the total. Conclusions The problems in the referral decision and the low proportion of adequate referrals are evidence of problems in the medical decision, poor coordination and communication, lack of definition of procedures and absence of periodic evaluation systems.