Normal physiological functions in two animal species with highly different vitamin d status compared to that of humans / Funciones fisiológicas normales en dos especies animales con estatus de vitamina d muy diferentes del actual en seres humanos

Mole rats live in permanent darkness, in networks of underground tunnels (which extend up to 1 km in the subsoil), excavated with their incisors, in warm and semi-arid areas of South Africa. Mole rats have an unusually impoverished vitamin D3 status with undetectable and low plasma concentrations of 25- hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, respectively. They express 25-hydroxylase in the liver and 1-hydroxylase and 24-hydroxylase in their kidneys. The presence of specific receptors (VDR) was confirmed in the intestine, kidney, Harderʼs glands and skin. In spite of their poor vitamin D3 status, the apparent fractional intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium and phosphate was high, always greater than 90%. Oral supplementation with cholecalciferol to mole rats did not improve the efficiency of gastrointestinal absorption of these minerals. Mole ratsdo not display the typical lesion of rickets: hypertrophic and radiolucent growth cartilages. Histological studies reported normal parameters of trabecular and cortical bone quality. Marmosets (monkeys of the New World) are not hypercalcaemic, eventhough they exhibit much higher levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and parathyroid hormonethan that of rhesus monkeys and humans. Fed a high vitamin D3 intake (110 IU/day/100 g of body weight), a fraction of the experimental group was found to display osteomalacic changes in their bones: distinct increases in osteoid surface, relative osteoid volume, and active osteoclastic bone resorption. These findings suggest that some marmosets appears to suffer vitamin D-dependent rickets, type II. The maximum binding capacity of the VDR or the dissociation constant of VDR1α,25(OH)2D3 complex of mole rats and New World monkeys are distinctly different of VDR isolated from human cells. Health status of those species appears to be adaptations to the mutations of their VDR. Though rare, as mutations may occur at any time in any patient, the overall message of this review to clinicians may be: recent clinical studies strongly suggests that the normality of physiological functions might be a better indicator of the health status than the serum levels of vitamin D metabolites. (AU)

Las ratas topo viven en la oscuridad permanente, en redes de túneles subterráneos excavadas con sus incisivos (que se extienden hasta 1 km en el subsuelo), en áreas cálidas y semiáridas de Sudáfrica. Las ratas topo tienen un estatus de vitamina D3 inusualmente empobrecido con concentraciones plasmáticas indetectables de 25-hidroxivitamina D3 y bajas de 1α, 25-dihidroxivitamina D3. Poseen 25-hidroxilasa en el hígado y 1-hidroxilasa y 24-hidroxilasa en sus riñones. La presencia de receptores específicos (VDR) ha sido confirmada en el intestino, el riñón, las glándulas de Harder y la piel. A pesar de su pobre estatus de vitamina D3,la absorción fraccional intestinal aparente de calcio, magnesio y fosfato fue alta, siempre superior al 90%. La suplementación oral con colecalciferol a las ratas topo no mejoró la eficacia de la absorción gastrointestinal de estos minerales. No muestran la lesión típica del raquitismo: cartílagos de crecimiento hipertróficos y radiolúcidos. Varios estudios histológicos confirman los hallazgos radiológicos y se informan parámetros normales de la calidad ósea trabecular y cortical. Los titíes (monos del Nuevo Mundo) exhiben calcemias normales con niveles más elevados de 25-hidroxivitamina D3, 1α,25-dihidroxivitamina D3 y hormona paratiroidea que los monos rhesus y los seres humanos. Un tercio de un grupo de titíes alimentados con una alta ingesta de vitamina D3 (110 I/día/100 g de peso corporal) exhibió cambios osteomalácicos en sus huesos: aumento en la superficie osteoide, volumen osteoide y activa reabsorción osteoclástica. Estos hallazgos sugieren que una fracción de la población de titíes padece raquitismo dependiente de vitamina D, tipo II. Debido a mutaciones ocurridas hace millones de años, las máximas capacidades de ligamiento del VDR o los valores de la constante de disociación del complejo VDR-1α,25(OH)2D3 de las ratas topo o monos del Nuevo Mundo son muy diferentes de los verificables en receptores aislados de células humanas actuales. El mensaje de esta revisión a los médicos clínicos podría ser: varios estudios clínicos recientes indican que la normalidad de las funciones fisiológicas de un paciente es un mejor indicador de su salud que los niveles séricos de los metabolitos de la vitamina D. (AU)

Serological and molecular techniques applied for identification of Plasmodium spp. in blood samples from nonhuman primates / Técnicas sorológicas e moleculares aplicadas na identificação de Plasmodium spp. em amostras de primatas não humanos

Abstract The aim of this study was to identify Plasmodium spp. in blood samples from nonhuman primates (NHPs) in the state of Maranhão, using classical and alternative techniques for examination of human malaria. A total of 161 blood samples from NHPs were analyzed: 141 from captive animals at a Wildlife Screening Center (CETAS) and 20 from free-living animals in a private reserve. The techniques used were microscopy, rapid diagnostic test (RDT), Indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and molecular techniques (semi-nested PCR, quantitative real-time PCR and LAMP). Two serological methods (dot-ELISA and indirect ELISA) were also standardized with rhoptry protein-soluble antigen of P. falciparum and P. berghei. Trophozoite forms of Plasmodium sp. were identified on slides from five different animals. No samples were positive through RDT and LAMP. Four samples were seropositive for P. malariae through IFAT. The samples showed low reactivity to ELISA. Plasmodium sp. was detected in 34.16% (55/161) of the samples using qPCR based on the 18S rRNA gene. After sequencing, two samples showed 100% identityl to P. malariae, one showed 97% identity to Plasmodium sp. ZOOBH and one showed 99% identity to P. falciparum . PCR was shown to be the most sensitive technique for diagnosing Plasmodium in NHP samples.

Resumo Neste estudo objetivamos identificar Plasmodium spp. em amostras sangue de primatas não humanos (PNH) do estado do Maranhão, utilizando técnicas clássicas e alternativas para o exame da malária humana. Foram analisadas 161 amostras de sangue de PNH, sendo 141 de CETAS (cativeiro) e 20 de reserva particular (vida livre), utilizando microscopia, teste de diagnóstico rápido (RDT), imunofluorescência indireta (IFI) e técnicas moleculares (semi-nested PCR, PCR em tempo real quantitativo e LAMP). Dois métodos sorológicos (dot-ELISA e ELISA indireto) também foram padronizados com antígenos solúveis de roptrias de P. falciparum e P. berghei. Formas trofozoíticas de Plasmodium sp. foram identificadas em lâminas de cinco animais diferentes. Nenhuma amostra foi positiva em TDR e LAMP. Quatro amostras foram soropositivas para P. malariae na IFI. Os soros de PNH mostraram baixa reatividade pelo ELISA indireto. Plasmodium sp. foi detectado em 34,16% (55/161) das amostras utilizando a qPCR baseada no gene 18S rRNA. No sequenciamento, duas amostras mostraram identidade com P. malariae (100%), uma com Plasmodium sp. ZOOBH (97%) e uma com P. falciparum (99%). A PCR mostrou ser a técnica mais sensível para diagnósticos de Plasmodium em amostras de PNH.

Modeling Parkinson's disease in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus): overview of models, methods, and animal care / 한국실험동물학회지

The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) is a small-bodied, popular New World monkey and is used widely in reproductive biology, neuroscience, and drug development, due to its comparative ease of handling, high reproductive efficiency, and its unique behavioral characters. In this review, we discuss the marmoset models in Parkinson's disease (PD), which is a neurological movement disorder primarily resulting from a degeneration of dopaminergic neurons with clinical features of tremor, rigidity, postural instability, and akinesia. The most common PD models involve the administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) or 6-hydroxydopamine to study the pathogenesis and to evaluate novel therapies. Following the systemic or local administration of these neurotoxins, the marmosets with very severe Parkinson's symptoms are recommended to be placed in an intensive care unit with artificial feeding to increase survival rate. All procedures with MPTP should be conducted in a special room with enclosed cages under negative-pressure by trained researchers with personal protection. Behavioral tests are conducted to provide an external measure of the brain pathology. Along with several biomarkers, including alpha-synuclein and DJ-1, non-invasive neuroimaging techniques such as positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging are used to evaluate the functional changes associated with PD. With the recent growing interest in potential and novel therapies such as stem cell and gene therapy for PD in Korea, the marmoset can be considered as a suitable non-human primate model in PD research to bridge the gap between rodent studies and clinical applications.

Serological evidence for Saint Louis encephalitis virus in free-ranging New World monkeys and horses within the upper Paraná River basin region, Southern Brazil

Introduction Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) primarily occurs in the Americas and produces disease predominantly in humans. This study investigated the serological presence of SLEV in nonhuman primates and horses from southern Brazil. Methods From June 2004 to December 2005, sera from 133 monkeys (Alouatta caraya, n=43; Sapajus nigritus, n=64; Sapajus cay, n=26) trap-captured at the Paraná River basin region and 23 blood samples from farm horses were obtained and used for the serological detection of a panel of 19 arboviruses. All samples were analyzed in a hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay; positive monkey samples were confirmed in a mouse neutralization test (MNT). Additionally, all blood samples were inoculated into C6/36 cell culture for viral isolation. Results Positive seroreactivity was only observed for SLEV. A prevalence of SLEV antibodies in sera was detected in Alouatta caraya (11.6%; 5/43), Sapajus nigritus (12.5%; 8/64), and S. cay (30.8%; 8/26) monkeys with the HI assay. Of the monkeys, 2.3% (1/42) of A. caraya, 6.3% 94/64) of S. nigritus, and 15.4% (4/26) of S. cay were positive for SLEV in the MNT. Additionally, SLEV antibodies were detected by HI in 39.1% (9/23) of the horses evaluated in this study. Arboviruses were not isolated from any blood sample. Conclusions These results confirmed the presence of SLEV in nonhuman primates and horses from southern Brazil. These findings most likely represent the first detection of this virus in nonhuman primates beyond the Amazon region. The detection of SLEV in animals within a geographical region distant from the Amazon basin suggests that there may be widespread and undiagnosed dissemination of this disease in Brazil. .

The genetics of New World monkey visual pigments

To have color vision, having at least two cone photopigment types with different spectral sensitivities present in distinct photoreceptors is necessary together with the neural circuitry necessary to extract color information. Visual pigments are highly conserved molecules, but differences can be found among vertebrate groups. Primates have a variety of cone photopigments (i.e., opsins) that are expressed by polymorphic genes. This article examines the diversity of cone photopigments in New World monkeys and their behavioral relevance...

Immunodetection of Helicobacter sp. and the associated expression of ABO blood group antigens in the gastric mucosa of captive and free-living New World primates in the Amazon region

The histo-blood group ABH antigens were first described in humans. These antigens are only present on erythrocytes from great apes and humans, while in more primitive animals they are found in tissues and body fluids. The ABH antigens are mainly distributed in tissues exposed to the external environment and potentially serve as ligands for pathogens or inhibitors of tissue connections. The objective of this paper was two-fold: (i) to determine the presence of Helicobacter sp. in the gastric mucosa of 16 captive and 24 free-living New World monkeys and (ii) to evaluate the presence of histopathological alterations related to bacterial infection and the associated expression of ABH antigens in the tissue. Stomach tissues from 13 species of monkey were assessed using haematoxylin-eosin and modified Gram staining (Hucker) methods. An immunohistochemical analysis of the tissue revealed the presence of infectious bacteria that were characteristic of the genus Helicobacter sp. The results demonstrate that various species of monkey might be naturally infected with the Helicobacter sp. and that there is an increased susceptibility to infection. This study serves as a comparative analysis of infection between human and non-human primates and indicates the presence of a new species of Helicobacter.

Comparison of two computerized procedures for the assessment of color discrimination in Cebus apella

Color vision consists of the discrimination of objects based on their spectral composition. Among primates, the majority of Platyrrhini monkeys are estimated to have polymorphic and sex-linked dichromacy. The objective of this study was to compare the results produced by different equipment and software for the assessment of tri- and dichromatic conditions in one male and two female Cebus apella. Three experiments were programmed. In Experiment 1, verifying the trichromatic condition of one female subject and dichromatic condition of the remainder of the subjects was possible using an adapted version of the Cambridge Colour Test. Experiment 2 confirmed the results of Experiment 1 using a different array of stimuli of the same test. Experiment 3, which produced results similar to Experiment 2, consisted of a test developed for a standard computer system using stimuli with color properties similar to the ones used in the previous experiment. Favorable conditions for the assessment of color vision in Platyrrhini can be built with low-cost equipment and software. Once data have been gathered with additional subjects and new stimulus arrangements have been tested and confirmed, the procedure can be used for the evaluation of other Platyrrhini species for which behavioral color discrimination data are currently lacking.

Anticuerpos contra Leptospira sp. en primates neotropicales y trabajadores de un zoológico colombiano / Leptospiral antibodies in a Colombian zoo's Neotropical primates and workers

Objetivo Detectar anticuerpos contra Leptospira sp. en primates neotropicales y funcionarios de un zoológico colombiano e identificar factores de riesgo de la enfermedad. Métodos Se realizó un estudio transversal analítico en 65 primates y 20 funcionarios del Zoológico. Las muestras fueron procesadas mediante la técnica de Microaglutinación macroscópica (MAT) usando un cepario de referencia conformado por 21 serovares de Leptospira sp. Se aplicó un instrumento estructurado al personal evaluado para identificar factores de riesgo. Resultados La seroprevalencia de la infección por Leptospira sp. fue del 25 % (5/20) en el personal y 23,07 % (15/65) en los monos neotropicales. Los serovares más frecuentes entre los funcionarios fueron bataviae, gryppotyphosa y hurstbridge. En los monos neotropicales predominaron los serovares icterohaemorrhagiae, pomona y ranarum. Las especies mono araña negro (Ateles fusciceps), mono cariblanco (Cebus albifrons) y tití gris (Saguinus leucopus), presentaron mayor reactividad. La mayor proporción del personal usaba dotación de protección. Conclusiones Se evidenció el contacto de los primates neotropicales y del personal con diferentes serovares de Leptospira. El uso de la dotación de protección y el tiempo de experiencia de los funcionarios del zoológico se consideraron como factores protectores de la enfermedad. Se sugiere que existe un riesgo de transmisión de leptospirosis, en los animales del zoológico y el personal, siendo por lo tanto importante fortalecer la vigilancia epidemiológica activa e implementar programas de promoción y prevención.

Objective Detecting antibodies against Leptospira spp. in Neotropical primates and workers in a Colombian Zoo and identifying the risk factors associated with the disease. Methods A cross-sectional study was performed regarding 65 Neotropical primates and 20 zookeepers. The samples were processed by microagglutination test (MAT) using a reference strain collection consisting of 21 Leptospira serovars. The people being evaluated were given a structured survey to identify risk factors. Results There was 25 % (5/20) Leptospira spp. infection seroprevalence in the staff and 23.07 % (15/65) in Neotropical monkeys. The most frequently occurring serovars in workers were bataviae, gryppotyphosa and ranarum; icterohaemorrhagiae, pomona and ranarum were the predominant serovars in non-human primates. The black spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps), white-fronted capuchin (Cebus albifrons) and white-footed tamarin (Saguinus leucopus) showed the highest reactivity. Most of the personnel were using protective clothing. Conclusions The contact between primates and zookeepers involving different Leptospira sp. serovars was evident. Zoo personnel using protective clothing and their length of experience were considered to be protective factors for the disease. There may be a risk of Leptospira transmission between zoo animals and staff, and it is therefore important to strengthen active surveillance and implement promotion and prevention programs.

Malaria-related anaemia: a Latin American perspective

Malaria is the most important parasitic disease worldwide, responsible for an estimated 225 million clinical cases each year. It mainly affects children, pregnant women and non-immune adults who frequently die victims of cerebral manifestations and anaemia. Although the contribution of the American continent to the global malaria burden is only around 1.2 million clinical cases annually, there are 170 million inhabitants living at risk of malaria transmission in this region. On the African continent, where Plasmodium falciparum is the most prevalent human malaria parasite, anaemia is responsible for about half of the malaria-related deaths. Conversely, in Latin America (LA), malaria-related anaemia appears to be uncommon, though there is a limited knowledge about its real prevalence. This may be partially explained by several factors, including that the overall malaria burden in LA is significantly lower than that of Africa, that Plasmodium vivax, the predominant Plasmodium species in the region, appears to display a different clinical spectrus and most likely because better health services in LA prevent the development of severe malaria cases. With the aim of contributing to the understanding of the real importance of malaria-related anaemia in LA, we discuss here a revision of the available literature on the subject and the usefulness of experimental animal models, including New World monkeys, particularly for the study of the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of malaria.

Prevalence of fur mites (Acari: Atopomelidae) in non-human primates of Costa Rica

Parasites have been investigated for some New World primates; however, very little is known about ectoparasites and specifically fur mites. In this study, Alouatta palliata, Cebus capucinus, Saimiri oerstedii, and Ateles geoffroyi monkeys from different areas of Costa Rica were searched for fur mites. A total of 276 monkeys were evaluated, and 51 of them were positive for mites of the family Atopomelidae. Listrocarpus alouattae was identified on 22.3% of A. palliata; Listrocarpus capucinus on 12.8% of C. capucinus; and Listrocarpus costaricensis on 36.8% of S. oerstedii; No fur mites were found on A. geoffroyi. Sex was not considered a determinant of mite infestation, but prevalence was significantly higher in the Central Volcanic Mountain Range Conservation Area for L. alouattae (p=0.01) and in the Central Pacific Conservation Area for L. capucinus (p=0.002). These primate fur mites are highly host-specific. Differences in the geographical distribution may be due to monkey behavior and history, as well as to environmental conditions. Rev. Biol. Trop. 57 (1-2): 353-360. Epub 2009 June 30.

Muy poco se conoce sobre los ectoparásitos, específicamente de los ácaros del pelo, de primates del Nuevo Mundo. En este estudio se buscaron ácaros del pelo en monos Alouatta palliata, Cebus capucinus, Saimiri oerstedii y Ateles geoffroyi provenientes de diferentes áreas de Costa Rica. Se evaluaron 276 monos en total y 51 de ellos se encontraron positivos por ácaros de la familia Atopomelidae. Se identificó Listrocarpus alouattae en el 22.3% de los A. palliata, Listrocarpus capucinus en el 12.8% de los C. capucinus y Listrocarpus costaricensis en el 36.8% de los S. oerstedii. El sexo no fue un determinante de la infestación por ácaros, pero la prevalencia de L. alouattae fue significativamente mayor en el Área de Conservación Cordillera Volcánica Central (p=0.01) y la de L. capucinus fue mayor en el Área de Conservación Pacífico Central (p=0.002). Estos ácaros del pelo de primates son altamente específicos en relación con su hospedero. Las diferencias en la distribución geográfica podrían deberse al comportamiento e historia de los monos, así como a las condiciones ambientales.

Diversity of regenerating plants and seed dispersal in two canopy trees from Colombian Amazon forests with different hunting pressure

Hunting may have drastic effects on some populations of frugivores and seed dispersal agents, which in turn may affect patterns of forest regeneration and plant diversity. However, when a species disappears, it is possible that the population of other species increases due to competition release, compensating or not, their ecological roles. The main aim of this study was to measure density compensation in primate communities, their possible effects on seedling and sapling diversity, and compensation of seed removal rates in two canopy trees (Apeiba aspera and Hymenaea oblongifolia). The study site was Amacayacu National Park (Colombian Amazon), where we carried out a census of mammal species using line transect methods in two forests with different levels of hunting pressure. Vegetation plots were used to quantify plant diversity for seedlings and saplings (4 m² and 25 m² respectively), and fruit traps were set up to estimate seed removal of A. aspera and H. oblongifolia. Large primates were less frequently encountered near human settlements, while small primates exhibited the opposite pattern, suggesting a density compensation effect. The diversity of regenerating plants was higher in the forest where large primates occur. Seed removal was higher in forests with large primates for A. aspera, but not for H. oblongifolia. Overall, the results support the hypothesis of density compensation on the primate community; however, there is no strong evidence of ecological compensation in terms of seed dispersal and regeneration in the species studied. Finally, the presence of large seed dispersers (e.g. Lagothrix lagothricha) was associated with higher plant diversity. Rev. Biol. Trop. 56 (3): 1531-1542. Epub 2008 September 30.

La cacería ha tenido fuertes efectos en algunas poblaciones de frugívoros y dispersores de semillas, lo cual en consecuencia puede afectar los patrones de diversidad de plantas y regeneración del bosque. Sin embargo, es posible que extinciones locales promuevan el incremento de otras especies, que pueden o no compensar roles ecológicos. El principal objetivo de este estudio fue examinar la posibilidad de compensación por densidad en las comunidades de primates y sus posibles efectos sobre la diversidad de plántulas y juveniles, así como también la remoción de semillas de dos árboles (Apeiba aspera e Hymenaea oblongifolia). El trabajo fue realizado en el Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu (Amazonas - Colombia). Hicimos censos de mamíferos usando transectos lineales en dos bosques con diferentes presiones de cacería. Además, levantamos parcelas de vegetación para plántulas y juveniles (4 m² y 25 m² respectivamente), y ubicamos trampas de frutos bajo al menos seis árboles de cada especie, en cada bosque, para estimar la remoción de semillas. Los encuentros con primates grandes fueron menos frecuentes en bosques cerca de las comunidades indígenas, mientras que para los primates pequeños el patrón fue contrario, sugiriendo un efecto de compensación por densidad. Por otra parte, la diversidad de plántulas y juveniles fue más alta en bosques donde la densidad de primates grandes es mayor. La remoción de semillas fue mayor en bosques con mayor densidad de primates grandes para A. aspera, pero para H. oblongifolia las diferencias entre bosques no fueron significativas. En general, los resultados de este estudio apoyan la hipótesis de compensación por densidad en la comunidad de primates, sin embargo, no hay evidencia fuerte de compensación ecológica en términos de dispersión de semillas y regeneración. Finalmente, la presencia de dispersores grandes (ej. Lagothrix lagothricha) estuvo asociada con una mayor diversidad de plantas.

Distribution patterns of Neotropical primates (Platyrrhini) based on Parsimony Analysis of Endemicity

A Análise de Parcimônia de Endemismo (PAE) é um método da biogeografia histórica que é usado para detectar e conectar áreas de endemismo. Baseando-se em dados de distribuição de primatas Neotropicais, construíram-se matrizes de dados utilizando-se quadrículas, regiões entre rios e áreas de endemismo pré-determinadas para aves como Unidades Geográficas Operacionais (OGUs). Codificou-se a ausência da espécie na OGU como 0 (zero) e a presença como 1 (um). Uma área hipotética com ausência total de espécies de primatas foi usada como grupo externo para polarização. Todas as três análises resultaram em grupos similares de áreas de endemismo, coincidindo com a distribuição de biomas na região Neotropical: uma área incluindo a América Central e o extremo Noroeste da América do Sul; outra, a Bacia Amazônica; e, uma terceira, a Mata Atlântica, Caatinga, Cerrado e Chaco.

Anatomia comparativa dos nervos do braço de Cebus apella. Descrição do músculo dorso epitroclear / Comparative anatomy of the arm nerves of Cebus apella. Description of the dorso epitroclear muscle

A anatomia do Cebus apella é a lacuna que falta entre prossímios e os macacosdo novo mundo. Comparações entre Cebus e humanos são relatadas, dentre outrasconsiderações comparativas em relação a chimpanzés, babuínos, gatos e cães. Oitoespécimes de Cebus apella foram doados pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente eRecursos Naturais Renováveis (Ibama), de Sete Lagoas, Estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil, esacrificados segundo as recomendações do Colégio Brasileiro de Experimentação Animal(Cobea). Houve equivalência na distribuição e inervação dos nervos do braço de Cebus ehumanos, embora se tenha encontrado divergência no trajeto dos nervos mediano e ulnar,que apresentaram maior similaridade com cães e gatos. Estruturas anatômicas inexistentesno homem, como o forame epicondilar e o músculo dorso-olécrano, geram disparidade notrajeto e na distribuição de alguns nervos.

Comparative anatomy of the arm nerves of Cebus apella. Descriptionof the dorsoepitroclear muscle. The anatomy of Cebus apella is the missing gap betweenprosimians and monkeys from the new world. Comparisons between Cebus and humanbeings are reported, among other comparative considerations in relation to chimpanzees,baboons, cats and dogs. The Brazilian Institute for Environment and Recyclable NaturalResources (Ibama – Instituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente) from Sete Lagoas, state of MinasGerais (Brazil), donated eight different species of Cebus paella and they were sacrificedaccording to the recommendations of the Brazilian Society of Animal Experimentation(Cobea – Colégio Brasileiro de Experimentação Animal). There was equivalence in thedistribution and innervation of the arm nerves of Cebus and human beings, although therewas divergence in the trajectory of median and ulnar nerves, which presented highersimilarity with cats and dogs. Anatomical structures not present in human beings, as theepicondilar foramen and the dorsal-olecraneal muscle, differ in the trajectory anddistribution of some nerves.

Genomic Features of Retroelements and Implications for Human Disease

Most of the endogenous retroviral genes integrated into the primate genome after the split of New World monkeys in the Oligocene era, approximately 33 million years ago. Because they can change the structure of adjacent genes and move between and within chromosomes they may play important roles in evolutionas well as in many kinds of disease and the creation of genetic polymorphism. Comparative analysis of HERVs (human endogenous retroviruses) and their LTR (long terminal repeat) elements in the primate genomes will help us to understand the possible impact of HERV elements in the evolution and phylogeny of primates. For example, HERV-K LTR and SINE-R elements have been identified that have been subject to recent change in the course of primate evolution. They are specific elements to the human genome and could be related to biological function. The HERV-M element is related to the superfamily of HERV-K and is integrated into the periphilin gene as the truncated form, 5'LTR-gag-pol-3'LTR. PCR and RT-PCR approaches indicated that the insertion of various retrotransposable elements in a common ancestor genome may make different transcript variants in different primate species. Examination of the HERV-W elementrevealed that env fragments were detected on human chromosomes 1, 3-7, 12, 14, 17, 20, and X, whilst the pol fragments were detected on human chromosomes 2-8, 10-15, 20, 21, X, and Y. Bioinformatic blast search showed that almost full-length of the HERV-W family was identified on human chromosomes 1-8, 11-15, 17, 18, 21, and X. Expression analysis of HERV-W genes (gag, pol, and env) in human tissues by RT-PCR indicated that gag and pol were expressed in specific tissues, whilst env was constituitively expressed in all tissues examined. DNA sequence based phylogenetic analysis indicated that the gag, pol and env genes have evolved independently during primate evolution. It will thus be of considerable interest to expand the current HERV gene information of various primates and disease tissues.