Ethical dilemmas and principles in organ transplantation in China / Dilemas y principios éticos en el trasplante de órganos en China / Dilemas e princípios éticos no transplante de órgãos na China

Abstract In medical clinical practice, organ transplantation is mainly applied to patients with end-stage organ lesions and organ failure. However, with the development of organ transplantation, many ethical issues and controversies have arisen. From the perspective of bioethics, the article compares the relevant ethical and legal regulations of organ transplantation in various countries. Due to the complexity of the real situation, many ethical dilemmas arise in organ transplantation in China. The article analyzes and researches three aspects of organ donation, distribution, and trading, and finds that there are various ethical problems in these three aspects of organ transplantation in China, such as whether the principle of presumed consent is ethical, whether brain death is legalized, the selection and determination of transplant patients, and whether human organ trading is legalized, etc. With the help of the four principles of bioethics and the current development of organ transplantation in China, the article proposes that organ transplantation in China should follow four ethical principles: the principle of respect for life, the principle of do no harm/benefit, the principle of respect for autonomy, and the principle of justice, in order to provide a defense for the legitimacy of organ transplantation.

Resumen En la práctica clínica médica, el trasplante de órganos se aplica principalmente a los pacientes con lesiones orgánicas en fase terminal y con insuficiencia orgánica. Sin embargo, con el desarrollo del trasplante de órganos, han surgido muchas cuestiones éticas y controversias. Desde la perspectiva de la bioética, el artículo compara las normas éticas y jurídicas pertinentes del trasplante de órganos en varios países. Debido a la complejidad de la situación real, surgen muchos dilemas éticos en el trasplante de órganos en China. El artículo analiza e investiga tres aspectos de la donación, la distribución y el comercio de órganos, y constata que hay varios problemas éticos en estos tres aspectos del trasplante de órganos en China, como si el principio del consentimiento presunto es ético, si la muerte cerebral está legalizada, la selección y determinación de los pacientes de trasplante y si el comercio de órganos humanos está legalizado, etc. Con la ayuda de los cuatro principios de la bioética y el desarrollo actual del trasplante de órganos en China, el artículo propone que el trasplante de órganos en China debe seguir cuatro principios éticos: el principio de respeto a la vida, el principio de no hacer daño/beneficio, el principio de respeto a la autonomía y el principio de justicia, con el fin de proporcionar una defensa de la legitimidad del trasplante de órganos.

Resumo Na prática clínica médica, o transplante de órgãos é principalmente destinado a pacientes em estágio final de lesões e falência dos órgãos. Entretanto, com o desenvolvimento do transplante de órgãos, surgiram muitas questões e controvérsias éticas. O artigo compara, desde uma perspectiva bioética, as regulações éticas e legais relevantes sobre transplantes de órgãos em vários países. Devido à complexidade da situação real, muitos dilemas éticos surgiram no transplante de órgãos na China. O artigo analisa e investiga aspectos de doação, distribuição e comercialização de órgãos, e encontra que há vários problemas éticos nestes três aspectos do transplante de órgãos na China, tais como se o princípio do consentimento presumido é ético, se morte cerebral é legalizada, a seleção e determinação de pacientes que irão receber transplante, se a comercialização de órgãos humanos é legalizada, etc. O artigo propõe, com a ajuda de quatro princípios da bioética e o desenvolvimento atual de transplante de órgãos na China, que o transplante de órgãos na China deve seguir quatro princípios éticos: o princípio do respeito à vida, o princípio de beneficiar/não causar dano, o princípio do respeito pela autonomia e o princípio da justiça, de forma a possibilitar a defesa da legitimidade do transplante de órgãos.

Presumed consent for organ donation: an incoherent justification / Presunción del consentimiento para la donación de órganos: una justificación incoherente / Consentimento presumido na dação de órgãos: uma justificação incoerente

Abstract: 15. The difference between supply and demand of transplantable organs is a global problem, and one of the most discussed measures aiming to solve it is the implementation of a presumed consent (opt-out) policy in cadaveric organ donation. This type of system is controversial when it comes to its direct effects on organ donation rates as well as its ethical base. We aim to present the latest perspectives concerning the ethical implications of the policy, especially regarding consent: its need, the coherence of presuming it and the policy's capacity to fulfill its requirements. From a community perspective, we advocate a default change in societies with an opt-out system, with a strong population education in that direction. The potential rights of family objection are also approached as well as the differences between theoretical discussion and concrete application of public policy.

Resumen: 19. El desfase entre la oferta y la demanda de órganos para trasplantes es un problema mundial, y una de las medidas más discutidas para solucionarlo es la aplicación de una política de consientimiento presumido (opt-out) de la donación de órganos de cadáveres. Este tipo de sistema es controvertido teniendo en cuenta sus efectos directos sobre las tasas de donación de órganos, así como su base ética. Nuestro objetivo es presentar las últimas perspectivas sobre las implicaciones éticas, especialmente en lo que respecta al consentimiento: su necesidad, la consistencia de su presunción y la capacidad de cumplir sus requisitos. Desde el punto de vista comunitario, abogamos por un cambio por defecto en las sociedades con un sistema de opt-out, con una fuerte educación de la población a tal efecto. También se abordan los posibles derechos de la objeción familiar, así como las diferencias entre el debate teórico y la aplicación concreta de las políticas públicas.

Resumo: 23. A diferença entre a oferta e a procura de órgãos para transplantação é um problema global, e uma das medidas mais discutidas com vista à sua resolução é a implementação de uma política de consentimento presumido (opt-out) na doação de órgãos de cadáver. Este tipo de sistema é controverso ponderando os seus efeitos diretos nas taxas de doação de órgãos, bem como da sua base ética. O nosso objetivo é apresentar as últimas perspetivas relativas às implicações éticas, especialmente no que diz respeito ao consentimento: a sua necessidade, a coerência da sua presunção e a capacidade em cumprir os seus requisitos. Numa perspetiva comunitária, defendemos uma mudança de default nas sociedades com um sistema opt-out, com uma forte educação da população nesse sentido. Os direitos potenciais da objeção familiar também são abordados, bem como as diferenças entre a discussão teórica e a aplicação concreta da política pública.

La presunción de la donación de órganos en Colombia: reflexiones para el debate / The presumption of organ donation in Colombia: reflections for the debate / A presunção da doação de órgãos na Colômbia: reflexões para a discussão

Resumen La legislación sobre presunción de consentimiento es considerada como una medida efectiva para mejorar las tasas de donación de órganos. En el caso colombiano, este modelo institucional existe desde 1988; sin embargo, en 2016 las leyes de donación han sido reformadas para ratificar el modelo de presunción en una versión fuerte que garantice su implementación, y las nuevas disposiciones evitan que la familia pueda oponerse a la donación de órganos. El presente documento plantea que dicha estrategia no está libre de riesgos y su éxito depende de garantizar la transparencia de la información. Se presenta evidencia empírica y reflexiones teóricas que indican que la relación entre presunción de donación y mayor disponibilidad de órganos no es inequívoca, pues la decisión de donar es muy sensible a la información disponible en el entorno. Se concluye que si la información y los incentivos no son claros los individuos pueden manifestar su negativa a la donación de órganos y, en consecuencia, el sentido de solidaridad en el interior de la comunidad podría ser sacrificado.

Abstract The presumed consent legislation is considered as an effective measure to improve organ donation rates. In the Colombian case, this institutional model exists since 1988; however, in 2016 the donation laws were reformed to ratify the model of presumption in a powerful version to ensure its implementation, and the new provisions prevent the family from opposing organ donation. This paper states that such strategy is not risk-free, and that its success depends on ensuring the transparency of the information. We present empirical evidence and theoretical reflections that indicate that the relation between presumed consent legislation and major availability of organs is not unequivocal, since the decision of donation is very sensitive to the available information in the environment. It is concluded that if the information and the incentives are not clear, individuals can express their refusal to the donation of organs and, consequently, the sense of solidarity within the community could be sacrificed.

Resumo: A legislação sobre presunção de consentimento é considerada como uma medida eficaz para melhorar as taxas de doação de órgãos. No caso da Colômbia, este modelo institucional existe desde 1988; no entanto, em 2016 as leis de doação tem sido reformadas para ratificar o modelo de presunção em uma versão forte para garantir a sua implementação, as novas disposições impedem que a família possa opor-se à doação de órgãos. O presente artigo argumenta que esta estratégia não é isenta de riscos e seu sucesso depende de garantir a transparência das informações. Há evidência empírica e reflexões teóricas que indicam que a relação entre a presunção de doação e o aumento da disponibilidade de órgãos não é inequívoca, pois a decisão de doação de órgão é muito sensível à informação disponível no ambiente; se a informação e os incentivos não são claros os individuos podem expressar a sua recusa à doação de órgãos e, portanto, o sentido de solidariedade no interior da comunidade poderia ser sacrificado.

Doação de órgãos: tema bioético à luz da legislação / Organ donation: a bioethical issue in the light of legislation / Donación de órganos: tema bioético a la luz de la legislación

Resumo Objetivou-se analisar a opinião de profissionais de saúde que atuam no processo de doação e transplante de órgãos a respeito da implementação da Lei 10.211/2001, que regula o consentimento familiar para a doação de órgãos no Brasil. Trata-se de estudo qualitativo desenvolvido em hospital universitário do interior paulista. Os resultados mostram que a maioria dos profissionais de saúde concorda com o consentimento familiar para obtenção de órgãos para transplante. Contudo, há discordâncias quanto à forma de se obter esse consentimento. Conclui-se que são necessárias ações de conscientização urgentes direcionadas à população e a profissionais de saúde com relação à doação, buscando atingir o cumprimento efetivo da legislação e, sobretudo, aumentar substancialmente o número de órgãos disponíveis para transplante.

Abstract This study aimed to analyze the opinion of health professionals that work in the organ donation and organ transplant process regarding the implementation of Law 10,211/2001, which deals with family consent for organ donation in Brazil. It is a qualitative study conducted in a university hospital in the state of São Paulo. The results show that the majority of health professionals agree with family consent to obtain organs for transplantation. However, there is disagreement as to how to obtain this consent. The study concludes that it is necessary to promote urgent actions for awareness regarding donation amongst the public and health professionals, aiming to achieve compliance with the law, and, most of all, to increase the number of organs available for transplant.

Resumen Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar la opinión de los profesionales de la salud que trabajan en el proceso de donación y trasplante de órganos en relación a la aplicación de la Ley 10.211/2001, que se ocupa del consentimiento familiar para la donación de órganos en Brasil. Se trata de un estudio cualitativo realizado en un hospital universitario en el estado de São Paulo. Los resultados muestran que la mayor parte de los profesionales de la salud están de acuerdo con el consentimiento familiar para obtener órganos para trasplantes. Sin embargo, hay desacuerdo sobre cómo obtener este consentimiento. Se concluye que es necesario promover acciones de concientización urgentes sobre la donación de órganos, dirigidas a la población en general y a los profesionales de la salud, procurando alcanzar el cumplimiento efectivo de la legislación y, sobre todo, aumentar el número de órganos disponibles para trasplante.

Fragilidades na atenção ao potencial doador de órgãos: percepção de enfermeiros / Weaknesses in the care for potential organ donors: the perception of nurses / Deficiencias en la atención al potencial donante de órganos: la percepción de los enfermeros

Resumo Objetivou-se conhecer a percepção de enfermeiros sobre fragilidades na atenção ao potencial doador de órgãos. Trata-se de estudo exploratório-descritivo, com abordagem qualitativa, envolvendo oito enfermeiros de hospital de referência. Entrevista semiestruturada foi utilizada e os resultados foram analisados conforme a técnica de análise do discurso. Emergiram duas categorias: "percepção dos enfermeiros sobre o trabalho com potenciais doadores de órgãos" e "fragilidades na atenção aos potenciais doadores". Verificou-se atuação limitada no âmbito da organização de procura de órgãos. Entraves envolvem recursos humanos e financeiros, recusa familiar, elevado tempo de espera por exames e problemas estruturais. Assim, o trabalho nesta comissão está limitado a ações assistenciais, em detrimento das gerenciais. Os profissionais percebem fragilidades e temem interferência negativa. Há que se investir em estrutura e educação permanente para que isso se reflita em melhor atenção ao potencial doador e sua família.

Abstract This study aimed to get to know the perception of nurses about weaknesses in the care for potential organ donors. This is an exploratory-descriptive study with a qualitative approach, involving eight nurses from a reference hospital. It used semi-structured interviews and the results were analyzed according to discourse analysis. Two categories emerged: "perception of nurses on working with potential organ donors" and "weaknesses in the care for potential donors". There is a limited role of the organ procurement organization. The barriers involve human and financial resources, family refusal, long wait for test results and structural problems. The work of this committee is limited to health care activities, in detriment of management. The professionals perceive weaknesses and fear negative repercussions. One must invest in structure and continuing education for this to be reflected in better care to potential donors and their family.

Resumen Este estudio tuvo como objetivo conocer la percepción de los enfermeros sobre las deficiencias en la atención al potencial donante de órganos. Se trata de estudio exploratorio-descriptivo con enfoque cualitativo, con la participación de ocho enfermeros de un hospital de referencia. Se utilizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas y los resultados fueron analizados siguiendo la técnica de análisis del discurso. Emergieron dos categorías: "percepción de los enfermeros sobre el trabajo con potenciales donantes de órganos" y "deficiencias en la atención a los posibles donantes". Fue identificada actuación limitada en el ámbito de la organización de búsqueda de órganos. Los obstáculos están relacionados con los recursos humanos y financieros, la negativa de la familia, los prolongados tiempos de espera de resultados de exámenes y problemas estructurales. Por lo tanto, el trabajo de este grupo se limita a acciones asistenciales, en detrimento de las de gestión. Los profesionales perciben las deficiencias y temen una interferencia negativa. Es necesario invertir en la estructura y en la formación permanente para que esto se refleja en una mejor atención al donante potencial y a su familia.

El consentimiento presunto y la reciprocidad como mecanismos para aumentar la donación de órganos / Presumed consent and reciprocity as means to increase organ availability for transplantation

Chile became the third country in the world (after Israel and Singapore) to introduce the rule of reciprocity to receive an allograft. This means that if an individual opts for not being an organ donor, loses priority to receive a transplant. Despite the difficulties associated with its implementation, the recent Chilean reform that also incorporated the presumed consent, should be studied by those countries that are trying to overcome the severe lack of organ availability for transplantation.

Entrega de información y voluntariedad en el consentimiento presunto de la ley de donación de órganos en Chile / Information delivery and voluntariness in presumed consent in the Chilean organ donation law

A principios del año 2010 se reformó en Chile la antigua ley de donación y trasplante de órganos de 1996, instaurando una nueva forma de hacer donantes a los ciudadanos a través del llamado consentimiento presunto. A partir de lo anterior se analiza este concepto en relación a los pilares fundamentales del consentimiento informado; información, voluntariedad y capacidad, enfocado principalmente en los dos primeros. Respecto al principio de voluntariedad es claramente violado ya que actualmente no es necesario que la persona se manifieste para ser donante, sino que es posicionada automáticamente como tal a no ser que escoja lo contrario. Continuando con el análisis, se puede ver como la autoridad ha dejado de lado el principio de información, no poniendo énfasis en éste, a pesar de que la evidencia indica que es una forma efectiva de convencer a pacientes no donantes. La promulgación de la ley debe ser complementada con entrega de información y educación a los distintos sectores cívicos.

In early 2010, in Chile, the law of organ donation and transplantation from 1996 was amend ended, establishing a new form of organ donation to citizens through the presumed consent. From the above, this concept is analyzed according to the fundamental pillars of informed consent; information, voluntariness and capacity, mainly focused on the first two. Regarding the principle of voluntary it is clearly violated, as it is no longer necessary that the person chooses to be a donor if one does not manifest their willingness to not be one. Continuing with the analysis, it can be seen how the authority has neglected the principle of information, not emphasizing it, even though the evidence indicates that it is an effective way to convert non-donors. The enactment of the law must be supplemented by providing information and education to civic sectors.(AU)om the above, this concept is analyzed according to the fundamental pillars of informed consent; information, voluntariness and capacity, mainly focused on the first two. Regarding the principle of voluntary it is clearly violated, as it is no longer necessary that the person chooses to be a donor if one does not manifest their willingness to not be one. Continuing with the analysis, it can be seen how the authority has neglected the principle of information, not emphasizing it, even though the evidence indicates that it is an effective way to convert non-donors. The enactment of the law must be supplemented by providing information and education to civic sectors.

Organ transplant and presumed consent: towards an "opting out" system.

This paper examines the “opt out” system of organ donation wherein the State permits removal of tissue and organs posthumously unless an express objection is made by the person prior to the death. This paper examines the need for “presumed consent” and the jurisprudential arguments in support of it. The social contract theory and the sociological approach based on the principle of “common good” support this system. However, the ethical concerns raised while implementing such a system are debatable. It is for societies to evaluate the situation and make a choice between “ethics” and “common good”. The answer may not be obvious in a country like India where religion may supersede the question of life and death. The paper critically assesses both the issues, and concludes that presumed consent may be a viable method of addressing the organ shortage in India. However, we need public discourse and public awareness to change people’s attitude to this concept.

Doação de órgãos e tecidos no Brasil: podemos evoluir? / Donación de órganos y de tejidos en el Brasil: ¿podemos desarrollarnos? / Organ and tissues donation in Brazil: can we evolve?

Desde 1997, quando da aprovação da chamada Lei dos transplantes, até os dias de hoje, tivemos várias oportunidades de esclarecimentos àpopulação acerca da doação de órgãos e tecidos no Brasil. Adicionalmente, também tivemos um importante avanço nessa área, possibilitando aos profissionais mudanças e melhorias em suas práticas assistenciais. Mas ainda buscamos não somente entender o significado da doação, em constante mudança, frente aos valores morais que também se alteram, mas, sobretudo, buscar constantemente aprimorar nossos processos assistenciais, por meio das melhores evidências. Assim, este estudo faz uma revisão de literatura e discussão, sobre o tema doação de órgãos e tecidos. Observou-se que as evidências constroem um cenário internacional, em que a lei do consentimento presumido é associada ao aumento das taxas de doação de órgãos, e que o acompanhamento das famílias durante e após a doação tem sido uma importante recomendação de especialistas. A evolução das taxas de doação também está ligada, indiretamente, às propostas de capacitações, produção científica, eventos, parcerias público-privadas, desenvolvimento de um sistema de qualidade, contribuição social para as adequações legais, entre outros.Palavras-chave: Consentimento presumido. Doação dirigida de tecido-tendências. Família.

Since 1997, when Transplants Act was approved, until the present, we had some opportunities for explaining to the population legislation on organ and tissue donation in Brazil. Additionally, we also had an important advance in this area, making possible that professionals change and improve care practices. But still we search not only to understand the meaning of donation, in a constant change, before moral values that also change, but, over all we search constantly to improve our assistance processes by means of the best evidences. Thus, this study is a literature survey on and a discussionabout organ and tissue donation. We found evidences that point to a worldwide trend, where the law of presumed consent is associated to the increase of organ donation rates and that giving assistance to families during and after the donation has been an important recommendation of specialists. The evolution of donation rates is also indirectly linked to proposals of qualifications, scientific production, events, public-private partnerships, development of a quality system, social contribution for the legal adequacies, among others. Keywords: Presumed consent. Directed tissue donation-trends. Family.

Desde 1997, cuando se aprobó la Ley de los Trasplantes, hasta el presente, tuvimos algunas oportunidades como para explicar a la población la legislación sobre la donación de órganos y tejidos en Brasil. Además, también tuvimos un avance importante en esta área, haciendo posible que losprofesionales cambian y mejoren las prácticas del cuidado. Pero todavía buscamos no sólo entender el significado de la donación, en cambio constante, delante valores morales que también cambian, pero, sobretodo, la búsqueda constante de mejoría de nuestros procesos de ayuda de promedio las mejores evidencias. Así, este estudio es una encuesta sobre la literatura especializada y una discusión sobre la donación de órganos y tejidos. Encontramos evidencias que demuestran una tendencia mundial, donde la ley del consentimiento presumido se asocia al incremento de las tajas de donación de órganos y que la asistencia a las familias durante y después la donación ha sido una recomendación importante de especialistas. La evolución de las tajas de donación también se liga indirectamente a las propuestas de calificaciones, producción científica, eventos, aparcerías público-privadas, desarrollo de un sistema de calidad, contribución social para las adecuaciones legales, entre otros.

The transplantable organ shortage in Singapore: has implementation of presumed consent to organ donation made a difference?

The success of solid organ transplantation in the treatment of end-stage organ failure has fuelled a growing demand for transplantable organs worldwide that has far outstripped the supply from brain dead heart-beating donors. In Singapore, this has resulted in long waiting lists of patients for transplantable organs, especially kidneys. The Human Organ Transplant Act, introduced in 1987, is an opt-out scheme that presumes consent to removal of certain organs for transplantation upon death. Despite this legislation, the number of deceased organ donors in Singapore, at 7 to 9 per million population per year, remains low compared to many other developed countries. In this paper, we reviewed the clinical challenges and ethical dilemmas encountered in managing and identifying potential donors in the neurological intensive care unit (ICU) of a major general hospital in Singapore. The large variance in donor actualisation rates among local restructured hospitals, at 0% to 56.6% (median 8.8%), suggests that considerable room still exists for improvement. To address this, local hospitals need to review their processes and adopt changes and best practices that will ensure earlier identification of potential donors, avoid undue delays in diagnosing brain death, and provide optimal care of multi-organ donors to reduce donor loss from medical failures.

O Termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido e suas diferentes formas / The Free and Informed Consent Statement and its Different Ways of Expressing the Research Subjects Authorized Consent

O Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido (TCLE) tem como objetivo principal obter a anuência do sujeito de pesquisa e/ou de seu representante legal pela sua participação voluntária na pesquisa após ter recebido por parte dos pesquisadores os esclarecimentos sobre os aspectos da pesquisa: objetivos, riscos, procedimentos a serem realizados, respeitados os princípios da confidencialidade e do sigilo. Este artigo objetiva refletir sobre diferentes formas do sujeito de pesquisa expressar o seu consentimento livre e esclarecido. As autoras relatam suas experiências na obtenção do consentimento em pesquisas realizadas com diferentes culturas no norte do Brasil nos projetos institucionais do Centro Universitário São Camilo — São Paulo entre 1998 a 2003. Observou-se que o TCLE foi obtido de diferentes maneiras, respeitando a cultura de cada comunidade. Nem sempre existe a possibilidade de se obter a assinatura, como, por exemplo, em culturas tradicionais que são orais, ou seja, existe o analfabetismo não somente pela exclusão do acesso à escola, como também, pela valoração da comunicação oral. Diante das experiências vividas no campo de pesquisa, as autoras procuraram agir com eticidade, entendida como a percepção/consciência da situação, a condição de posicionar-se, de forma equilibrada, entre a emoção e a razão, a coerência no agir e uso do bom senso.

Program to Activate the Notification of the Potential Donors

Transplantation has developed as an established treatment modality for endstage organ diseases. However, the shortage of available organs remains the main obstacle to organ transplantation. The big discrepancy between the number of potential recipients on the waiting list and cadaveric transplantations has become a serious issue in Korea. The first step in the process of cadaveric organ donation is the identification of potential donors. The identification and notification of potential donors are essential for the activation of cadaveric organ donations. To increase the number of brain dead donors following components are critical: the increase of public understanding of organ donation, improvement of legal and systematic processes, establishment of a donor action program, interests and cooperation of attending physicians, and management of an organ donation process focused on donor families. Public education and campaign are also crucial to the understanding of brain death and organ donation. To improve legal and systematic processes, required referrals or routine notifications are advisable. Also, presumed consent is necessary to decrease the psychological stress on donor families during the agreement process. For the effective management of a donor action program, an education program to well-train medical staff and medical record reviews should be maintained. In conclusion, a comprehensive donor action program including a practical donor detection system, an education program, and improvement of the organ donation system are mandatory to increase the cadaveric organ donations effectively.

Organ Transplantation and Biomedical Ethics: An Analysis of Hospital Organ Transplantation Policy and a Proposal of Ethical Guideline / 대한이식학회지

AIMS: This study was done to develop an ethical guideline for organ transplatation, a life-saving treatment which helps improve the quality of life. METHODS: This study begins with a survey of the Korean current state of affairs concerning organ transplantation. This study used a survey questionnaire and received responses from 31 hospitals out of 45 hospitals where organ transplantation are being done. After this survey, followed by a discussion of ethical considerations in arranging organ transplants. Before proposing an ethical guideline, this study discusses a series of interesting ethical issues in transplanting(both living and cadaveric)organs including ethical foundations of organ transplantation, distributive justice and matters of donor's consent in organ transplatation. RESULTS: The foremost research for this study boils down to a survey paper titled, "An Analysis of the Current State of Affairs Concerning Organ Transplantation and Ethical Considerations in Domestic and International Hospitals." Based upon data collected from various hospitals, this work analyzes items, such as the frequency and types of organs transplanted in a hospital, the existence of organ transplant coordinator, the performance of the hospital ethics committee, and ethical considerations in obtaining consents from the living donor. Although thousands of organs are annually transplanted in domestic hospitals, virtually none of them are found to meet ethically proper standards. The paper points out the need to institutionalize a nationwide cadaveric organ distribution organization like UNOS(United Network for Organ Sharing) in the U.S., and proposes to stretch out the national health insurance to extensively cover transplanting expenses. "The Ethical Foundation of Organ Transplantation", the author counts three key ethical principles in organ transplantation: the principle of respect for autonomy; the principle of beneficence; and the principle of justice. He argues that in cases of living donor no principle should take precedence over the principle of respect for autonomy and thus it is very important for a hospital to obtain the donor's consent. As for cadaveric organ transplantation, he holds reservation because he is worried that serious shortage of organs for transplantation in conjunction with pure utilitarian considerations could change the definition of death so that the brain death gains more popularity than ever. In addition, the author claims that the proponent of organ transplantation must distinguish the moral dimension of the discussion from the legal one because otherwise she would hardly be able to defend herself from the slippery slope argument against organ transplantation. This paper concludes with a note that we must implement restrictions to avoid undesired effects if organ transplantation could ever be justified. "A Discussion of Distributive Justice in Organ Transplantation" comprises two parts. The first half delineates above mentioned ethical principles in the context of organ transplantation, while the second half goes generally over the UNOS Point System. This work is focused entirely upon cadaveric organ transplants, because the vast majority of organs available for transplants comes from cadavers and the number is still increasing. The UNOS allocates cadaveric organs based upon both medical and justice criteria. Following are summaries of the UNOS policy on organ distribution. Every potential recipient of organ transplants must be listed on the UNOS computer system waiting list. Allocation of cadaveric kidneys consider factors such as waiting time, six antigen match, panel reactive antibody, blood group and age. The UNOS Point System allocates livers to the local patients first, followed by regional and national patients respectively, in order to limit ischemic time. A recipient of liver transplant belongs to one of five(0~4) medical status levels where status 4 is the most medically urgent. At the regional and national levels pancreas are allocated first to patients with excellent HLA matches, while at the local level waiting time is the sole factor. The intestinal organ allocation system is based on two(1~2) patient status codes, ABO blood type identity and time waiting. In heart or lung tranplants ischemic time seriously matters. "A Biomedical Study of Informed Consent from the Organ Donor" investigates several topics: the relevance of the principle of respect for autonomy as the basic principle of informed consent; how the autonomy of the organ donor to be respected; and the role of the hospital ethics committee in obtaining informed consent from the donor. The author finds the principle of respect for patient's autonomy not sufficient for the basic principle of the living donor's informed consent because there is some danger in which the patient may be left uncared-for, and thus she suggests that the principle of nonmaleficence and the principle of care also be considered. That the principle of respect for autonomy turns out not sufficient even for cadaveric organ donation, and so judgment based upon the best interest of the deceased may seem appropriate for people from some special groups. A medical team must make efforts to identify the donor's competence and voluntariness, i.e., preconditions of informed consent. All the relevant medical information should be disclosed to the living donor. Once the donor makes a judgment, medical experts should respect the donor's decision. This article puts an emphasis on the role of the hospital ethics committee in such activities as identifying donor's voluntariness, confirming the disclosure, and evaluating the minority's benefit. The last work in this paper, "A Moral Theological Investigation of the Presumed Consent in Organ Transplantation" talk about Principium Riflexum(the principle of reflection) in an attempt to explain the possibility that we may harvest cadaveric organs from the deceased who while alive had never expressed their wishes concerning organ donation. To apply the principle in the context of presumed consent, the author, a Catholic priest, introduces two elements of the principle. Probabilismus allows us to feel free to choose when we face dubious matters(in dubio libetas), and by the rule of selection we are justified in choosing whatever our consciousness mandates. He takes both elements to support the presumed consent of the deceased because he believes the good that people may contribute to their neighbors by donating organs would obviously override opposing reasons. Although the author argues for the presumed consent from the deceased, he does not overlook the family grief in donating the cadaveric organs. He concludes with a suggestion that we should work to keep the public aware of cadaveric organ donation and to form public opinions education should play a key role. CONCLUSION: Researcher suggest an Ethical Guideline for Organ Transplantation as our study conclusion. 1) Body organs may be transplanted to protect the health and well-being of the patient, but not for the medical or scientific research. 2) Body organs may be taken for transplantation, only with the consent from the donor. In cases of cadaveric donors who have left no formal consent in the lifetime, they are to be presumed to refuse to donate body organs. 3) In principle, cadaveric transplantation is preferred. Living donors are limited to competent adults who have blood ties with the patient, e.g., parents, children, or siblings of the patient. However, reversible tissue like bone marrows donation may be an exception to this limitation. In particular, no living donors may be put under inappropriate pressure or influences. Body organs may be taken from the living donor only if based upon sufficient and easy-to-understand information provided, the donor voluntarily consents after (s)he deliberately balances benefits against harm. 4) Under no circumstances human bodies, organs, or tissues may be sold or purchased for transplantation. A physician should not participate in any transplanting operations if (s)he becomes to know that the transplant has been obtained through a transaction. 5) Recipients of organs for transplantation should be determined in accordance with the principle of justice on the allocation of limited medical resources. 6) When a vital, single organ is to be transplanted, the death of the donor shall have been determined by at least one physician other than the recipient's physician. 7) Transplant procedures of body organs should be undertaken (a) only by physicians who possess special medical knowledge and technical competence developed through special training, study, and laboratory experience and practice, and (b) in medical institutions with adequate facilities. 8) All decision procedures in transplanting body organs should be objective, open to parties involved, kept accurately on record, and maintained for a given period of time.