Crecimiento in vitro y producción de enzimas degradadoras de pared celular vegetal de aislamientos argentinos de Macrophomina phaseolina, agente causal de la podredumbre carbonosa en maíz / In vitro growth and cell wall degrading enzyme production by Argentinean isolates of Macrophomina phaseolina, the causative agent of charcoal rot in corn

Macrophomina phaseolina is a polyphagous phytopathogen, causing stalk rot on many commercially important species. Damages caused by this pathogen in soybean and maize crops in Argentina during drought and hot weather have increased due its ability to survive as sclerotia in soil and crop debris under non-till practices. In this work, we explored the in vitro production of plant cell wall-degrading enzymes --#91;pectinases (polygalacturonase and polymethylgalacturonase); cellulases (endoglucanase); hemicellulases (endoxylanase) and the ligninolytic enzyme laccase--#93; by several Argentinean isolates of M. phaseolina, and assessed the pathogenicity of these isolates as a preliminary step to establish the role of these enzymes in M. phaseolina-maize interaction. The isolates were grown in liquid synthetic medium supplemented with glucose, pectin, carboxymethylcellulose or xylan as carbon sources and/or enzyme inducers and glutamic acid as nitrogen source. Pectinases were the first cell wall-degrading enzymes detected and the activities obtained (polygalacturonase activity was between 0.4 and 1.3 U/ml and polymethylgalacturonase between 0.15 and 1.3 U/ml) were higher than those of cellulases and xylanases, which appeared later and in a lesser magnitude. This sequence would promote initial tissue maceration followed by cell wall degradation. Laccase was detected in all the isolates evaluated (activity was between 36 U/l and 63 U/l). The aggressiveness of the isolates was tested in maize, sunflower and watermelon seeds, being high on all the plants assayed. This study reports for the first time the potential of different isolates of M. phaseolina to produce plant cell wall-degrading enzymes in submerged fermentation.

Macrophomina phaseolina es un fitopatógeno polífago, causante de podredumbre carbonosa. Los daños que genera en cultivos de soja y maíz bajo siembra directa en Argentina, en períodos secos y calurosos, se incrementaron por su habilidad para sobrevivir como esclerocios en suelos y restos de cosecha. El propósito del trabajo fue estudiar la producción in vitro de enzimas degradadoras de pared celular vegetal (pectinasas --#91;poligalacturonasa y polimetilgalacturonasa--#93;; celulasas --#91;endoglucanasa--#93;; hemicelulasas --#91;endoxilanasa--#93; y la enzima ligninolítica lacasa) de varios aislamientos argentinos de M. phaseolina y evaluar la patogenicidad de esos aislamientos, como paso preliminar para establecer el papel de estas enzimas en la interacción M. phaseolina-maíz. Se estudió la cinética de crecimiento del hongo y la de la producción de dichas enzimas en medios de cultivo líquidos sintéticos con ácido glutámico como fuente de nitrógeno y con pectina, carboximetilcelulosa (CMC) o xilano como fuentes de carbono. Las pectinasas fueron las primeras enzimas detectadas y los máximos títulos registrados (1,4 UE/ml --#91;poligalacturonasa--#93; y 1,2 UE/ml --#91;polimetilgalacturonasa--#93;, respectivamente) superaron a los de celulasas y xilanasas, que aparecieron más tardíamente y en menor magnitud. Esta secuencia promovería la maceración inicial del tejido, seguida luego por la degradación de la pared celular vegetal. Se detectó actividad lacasa en todos los aislamientos (36 a 63 U/l). La agresividad de todos los aislamientos resultó alta en los 3 hospedantes evaluados: semillas de maíz, de girasol y de melón. En este trabajo se investiga por primera vez el potencial de distintos aislamientos de M. phaseolina para producir enzimas degradadoras de pared celular vegetal en cultivo líquido.

Changes in PEP Carboxylase, Rubisco and Rubisco activase mRNA levels from maize (Zea mays) exposed to a chronic ozone stress

We quantified the ozone impact on levels of Zea mays L. cv. Chambord mRNAs encoding C4-phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (C4-PEPc), ribulose-l,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase small and large subunits (Rubisco-SSU and Rubisco-LSU, respectively) and Rubisco activase (RCA) using real-time RT-PCR. Foliar pigment content, PEPc and Rubisco protein amounts were simultaneously determined. Two experiments were performed to study the ozone response of the 5th and the 10th leaf. For each experiment, three ozone concentrations were tested in open-top chambers: non-filtered air (NF, control) and non-filtered air containing 40 (+40) and 80 nL L-1 (+80) ozone. Regarding the 5th leaf, +40 atmosphere induced a loss in pigmentation, PEPc and Rubisco activase mRNAs. However, it was unable to notably depress carboxylase protein amounts and mRNAs encoding Rubisco. Except for Rubisco mRNAs, all other measured parameters from 5th leaf were depressed by +80 atmosphere. Regarding the 10th leaf, +40 atmosphere increased photosynthetic pigments and transcripts encoding Rubisco and Rubisco activase. Rubisco and PEPc protein amounts were not drastically changed, even if they tended to be increased. Level of C4-PEPc mRNA remained almost stable. In response to +80 atmosphere, pigments and transcripts encoding PEPc were notably decreased. Rubisco and PEPc protein amounts also declined to a lesser extent. Conversely, the level of transcripts encoding both Rubisco subunits and Rubisco activase that were not consistently disturbed tended to be slightly augmented. So, the present study suggests that maize leaves can respond differentially to a similar ozone stress.

Partial purification of tightly bound mitochondrial hexokinase from maize (Zea mays L) root membranes

In mammals, hexokinase (HK) is strategically located at the outer membrane of mitochondria bound to the porin protein. The mitochondrial HK is a crucial modulator of apoptosis and reactive oxygen species generation. In plants, these properties related to HK are unknown. In order to better understand the physiological role of non-cytosolic hexokinase (NC-HK) in plants, we developed a purification strategy here described. Crude extract of 400 g of maize roots (230 mg protein) contained a specific activity of 0.042 æmol G6P min-1 mg PTN-1. After solubilization with detergent two fractions were obtained by DEAE column chromatography, NC-HK 1 (specific activity = 3.6 æmol G6P min-1 mg PTN-1 and protein recovered = 0.7 mg) and NC-HK 2. A major purification (yield = 500-fold) was obtained after passage of NC-HK 1 through the hydrophobic phenyl-Sepharose column. The total amount of protein and activity recovered were 0.04 and 18 percent, respectively. The NC-HK 1 binds to the hydrophobic phenyl-Sepharose matrix, as observed for rat brain HK. Mild chymotrypsin digestion did not affect adsorption of NC-HK 1 to the hydrophobic column as it does for rat HK I. In contrast to mammal mitochondrial HK, glucose-6-phosphate, clotrimazole or thiopental did not dissociate NC-HK from maize (Zea mays) or rice (Oryza sativa) mitochondrial membranes. These data show that the interaction between maize or rice NC-HK to mitochondria differs from that reported in mammals, where the mitochondrial enzyme can be displaced by modulators or pharmacological agents known to interfere with the enzyme binding properties with the mitochondrial porin protein.

Survey of moniliformin in corn cultivated in the state of São Paulo and in corn products commercialized in the city of Campinas, SP

Moniliformin, a toxin produced by Fusarium, was investigated in 22 samples of corn, 17 coming from districts of the state of São Paulo and 4 from experimental plots of the Campinas Institute of Agronomy, Brazil. The toxin was also investigated in 68 samples of corn products commercialized in Campinas, SP. Moniliformin was not detected in any sample.

Limited proteolysis by trypsin influences activity of maize phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase.

Maize phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) was rapidly and completely inactivated by very low concentrations of trypsin at 37 degrees C. PEP+Mg2+ and several other effectors of PEP carboxylase offered substantial protection against trypsin inactivation. Inactivation resulted from a fairly specific cleavage of 20 kDa peptide from the enzyme subunit. Limited proteolysis under catalytic condition (in presence of PEP, Mg2+ and HCO3) although yielded a truncated subunit of 90 kDa, did not affect the catalytic function appreciably but desensitized the enzyme to the effectors like glucose-6-phosphate glycine and malate. However, under non-catalytic condition, only malate sensitivity was appreciably affected. Significant protection of the enzyme activity against trypsin during catalytic phase could be either due to a conformational change induced on substrate binding. Several lines of evidence indicate that the inactivation caused by a cleavage at a highly conserved C-terminal end of the subunit.

Immunological characteristics of PEP carboxylase from leaves of C3-, C4- and C3-C4 intermediate species of Alternanthera--comparison with selected C3- and C4- plants.

Immunological cross-reactivity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) in leaf extracts of C3-, C4- and C3-C4 intermediate species of Alternanthera (along with a few other C3- and C4- plants) was studied using anti-PEPC antibodies raised against PEPC of Amaranthus hypochondriacus (belonging to the same family as that of Alternanthera, namely Amaranthaceae). Antibodies were also raised in rabbits against the purified PEPC from Zea mays (C4- monocot-Poaceae) as well as Alternanthera pungens (C4- dicot-Amaranthaceae). Monospecificity of PEPC-antiserum was confirmed by immunoprecipitation. Amount of PEPC protein in leaf extracts of A. hypochondriacus could be quantified by single radial immunodiffusion. Cros- reactivity of PEPC in leaf extracts from selected C3-, C4-, and C3-C4 intermediate species (including those of Alternanthera) was examined using Ouchterlony double diffusion and Western blots. Anti-PEPC antiserum raised against A. hypochondriacus enzyme showed high cross-reactivity with PEPC in leaf extracts of A. hypochondriacus or Amaranthus viridis or Alternanthera pungens (all C4 dicots), but limited cross-reactivity with that of Zea mays, Sorghum or Pennisetum (all C4 monocots). Interestingly, PEPC in leaf extracts of Alternanthera tenella, A. ficoides, Parthenium hysterophorus (C3-C4 intermediates) exhibited stronger cross-reactivity (with anti-serum raised against PEPC from Amaranthus hypochondriacus) than that of Pisum sativum, Commelina benghalensis, Altenanthera sessilis (C3 plants). Further studies on cross-reactivities of PEPC in leaf extracts of these plants with anti-PEPC antisera raised against PEPC from leaves of Zea mays or Alternanthera pungens confirmed two points--(i) PEPC of C3-C4 intermediate is distinct from C3 species and intermediate between those of C3- and C4-species; and (ii) PEPC of C4-dicots was closer to that of C3-species or C3-C4 intermediates (dicots) than to that of C4-monocots.

Regulation of the expression of NADP-malic enzyme by UV-B, red and far-red light in maize seedlings

The induction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-malic enzyme (NADP-ME) in etiolated maize (Zea mays) seedlings by UV-B and UV-A radiation, and different levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400-700 nm) was investigated by measuring changes in activity, protein quantity and RNA levels as a function of intensity and duration of exposure to the different radiations. Under low levels of PAR, exposure to UV-B radiation but not UV-A radiation for 6 to 24 h caused a marked increase in the enzyme levels similar to that observed under high PAR in the absence of UV-B. UV-B treatment of green leaves following a 12-h dark period also caused an increase in NADP-ME expression. Exposure to UV-B radiation for only 5 min resulted in a rapid increase of the enzyme, followed by a more gradual rise with longer exposure up to 6 h. Low levels of red light for 5 min or 6 h were also effective in inducing NADP-ME activity equivalent to that obtained with UV-B radiation. A 5-min exposure to far-red light following UV-B or red light treatment reversed the induction of NADP-ME, and this effect could be eliminated by further treatment with UV-B or red light. These results indicate that physiological levels of UV-B radiation can have a positive effect on the induction of this photosynthetic enzyme. The reducing power and pyruvate generated by the activity of NADP-ME may be used for respiration, in cellular repair processes and as substrates for fatty acid synthesis required for membrane repair

Modification of maize NADP-malic enzyme by Woodward's reagent 'K'.

Maize leaf NADP-malic enzyme was rapidly inactivated by micromolar concentrations of Woodward's reagent K (WRK). The inactivation followed pseudo-first order reaction kinetics. The order of reaction with respect to WRK was 1, suggesting that inactivation was a consequence of the modification of a single residue per active site. The modified enzyme showed a characteristic absorbance at 346 nm due to carboxyl group modification and also exhibited altered surface charge as seen from the elution profile on "Mono Q" anion exchange column and the mobility on native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Substrate NADP and NADP + Mg2+ strongly protected the enzyme against WRK inactivation indicating that the modified residue may be located at or near the active site. Binding affinity of NADPH to the malic enzyme was studied by the fluorescence technique. The native enzyme binds NADPH strongly resulting in enhancement of the fluorescence emission and also causes a blue shift in the emission maximum of NADPH from 465 nm to 450 nm, however, the modified enzyme neither exhibited the enhancement of fluorescence emission nor the blue shift, indicating loss of NADPH binding site on modification. The essential carboxyl group may be involved in NADPH binding during catalysis by the enzyme.

o-Phthalaldehyde as a probe in the active site of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase.

Modification of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase with o-phthalaldehyde (OPA) resulted in rapid and irreversible inactivation exhibiting biphasic reaction kinetics. The kinetic analysis and correlation of spectral changes with activity indicated that inactivation by OPA results from the modification of two lysine and two cysteine residues per subunit of the enzyme. PEP plus Mg2+ offered substantial protection against modification. Some of the effectors also gave appreciable protection against modification indicating that the residues may be located at or close to the active site. Thus, the results indicate formation of two isoindoles showing the proximity of the essential lysine and cysteine residues at the active site.