Variables familiares relacionadas con el bullying y el cyberbullying: una revisión sistemática / Family Variables Related to Bullying and Cyberbullying: A Systematic Review / familiares relacionadas com o bullying e o cyberbullying: uma revisão sistemática

Resumen Objetivo. Revisar los estudios que han analizado la relación de bullying/cyberbullying con variables del contexto familiar. Método. Revisión sistemática, basada en el protocolo Prisma, de los documentos registrados en las principales bases de datos de psicología, que incluían las palabras clave bullying/cyberbullying y familia/padres, entre 2004 y 2017. Setenta y cuatro artículos cumplieron los criterios de inclusión. Resultados. La revisión evidenció las siguientes variables familiares asociadas con cada rol: (a) víctimas de bullying: padres/madres autoritarios, punitivos o permisivos; hogares disfuncionales, baja armonía familiar, conflictos, pobre comunicación; reciben muchas críticas, bajo apoyo/atención parental o sobreprotección; (b) cibervíctimas: padres/madres autoritarios o negligentes, conflictos familiares, bajo apoyo parental, padres/madres distantes, vínculos emocionales negativos; (c) agresores de bullying: padres/madres autoritarios, punitivos o permisivos, hogares disfuncionales, conflictos entre padres/madres, violencia doméstica, reciben rechazo, crítica y poco afecto parental; (d) ciberagresores: padres/madres autoritarios, negligentes o permisivos, y conflictos familiares. Por último, resultaron factores protectores: padres/madres democráticas, equilibrados, sin conflictos domésticos, cohesión familiar, interacciones de calidad, fácil comunicación padres-hijos, padres/madres apoyan a sus hijos, son cercanos y fomentan el apego seguro. Conclusión. Algunas variables familiares pueden ser relevantes, aunque en la probabilidad de convertirse en víctima o agresor de bullying y cyberbullying influyan otros factores, como los personales.

Abstract Objective. To review studies that have analyzed the relationship of bullying and cyberbullying with the family context. Method. PRISMA protocol for systematic reviews was used in all documents registered in the main psychology databases featuring the keywords bullying/cyberbullying and family/parents, between 2004 and 2017. Seventy-four articles met the inclusion criteria. Results. The review revealed the following familiar variables associated with each role. Victims of bullying: authoritarian, punitive, negligent, or permissive parents; dysfunctional homes, low family harmony, conflicts, poor parent-child communication; criticism, low parental support/attention, or overprotection. Cyber-victims: authoritarian or negligent parents; family conflicts, low parental support, distant parents, negative emotional bonding with parents. Bullies: authoritarian, punitive or permissive parents; dysfunctional homes, parental conflicts, domestic violence; rejection, criticism, and little parental affection. Cyberbullies: authoritarian, negligent or permissive parents, and family conflicts. Protective factors: democratic, balanced parents; no domestic conflicts, family cohesion, quality interactions, easy parent-child communication, parents support and care for their children, close-knit relationships, and foster secure attachment. Conclusion. Some family variables may be relevant, although the probability of becoming a victim or aggressor of bullying and cyberbullying may be influenced by other factors.

Resumo Escopo . Revisar os estudos que têm analisado a relação bullying/cyberbullying com variáveis do contexto familiar. Metodologia . Revisão sistemática, baseada no protocolo Prisma, dos documentos registrados nas principais bases de dados de psicologia, que incluíram as palavras chave bullying/cyberbullying e família/pais, entre 2004 e 2017. Setenta e quatro artigos cumpriram os critérios de inclusão. Resultados . A revisão evidenciou as seguintes variáveis familiares associadas com cada rol: (a) vítimas de bullying (pais/mais autoritários, punitivos ou permissivos; lares disfuncionais, baixa harmonia familiar, conflitos, pobre comunicação; recebem muitas críticas, baixo apoio/atenção parental ou sobre proteção); (b) cyber vítimas (pais/mais autoritários ou negligentes, conflitos familiares, baixo apoio parental, pais/mais distantes, vínculos emocionais negativos); (c) agressores de bullying (pais/mais autoritários, negligentes ou permissivos, lares disfuncionais, conflitos entre pais/mais, violência doméstica, recebem rejeito, crítica e pouco afeto parental); (d) cyber agressores (pais/mais autoritários, negligentes ou permissivos, e conflitos familiares); (e) fatores protetores (pais/mais democráticos, equilibrados, sem conflitos domésticos, coesão familiar, interações de qualidade, fácil comunicação pais-filhos, pais/mais apoiam seus filhos, são próximos e fomentam o apego seguro). Conclusão . Algumas variáveis familiares podem ser relevantes, embora na probabilidade de se converter em vítima ou agressor de bullying e cyberbullyuing influam outros fatores, como os pessoais.

Bullying y cyberbullying: diferencias de sexo en víctimas, agresores y observadores / Bullying and Cyberbullying: Sex Differences in Victims, Aggressors and Observers / Bullying e cyberbullying: diferenças de sexo em vítimas, agressores e observadores

Resumen Objetivo. Identificar si existen diferencias entre sexos en conductas de bullying y cyberbullying entre los adolescentes de La Rioja. Método. La muestra estuvo constituida por 979 adolescentes, 50.45 % varones y 49.6 % mujeres, entre los 13 y los 18 años de edad, a quienes se les aplicó la batería Cyberbullying Screening para explorar el acoso entre iguales. Resultados. Los resultados evidenciaron que: (a) hay un mayor porcentaje de mujeres víctimas de bullying y cyberbullying; (b) los chicos dijeron ser más agresores que las chicas, tanto en conductas de bullying como de cyberbullying; (c) las mujeres dicen observar más conductas de bullying y cyberbullying que los varones, siendo significativa la diferencia con respecto a este último; y (d) el porcentaje de víctimas de agresiones cara a cara y cyberbullying se asemeja entre mujeres y varones, siendo no significativa la diferencia. Conclusión. Estos datos evidencian que los varones son más agresores, mientras que las mujeres son mayormente víctimas, por ello, es importante tener presente la diferencia de roles de género y su implicación en los programas de prevención.

Abstract Objective. The study aims to analyze differences in bullying and cyberbullying between the sexes. Method. The sample consisted of 949 adolescents between 13 to 18 years old, 50.45% males and 49.6% females, students from compulsory secondary school. The Cyberbullying. Screening of Peer Harassment test was administered Results. The results showed that (a) the percentage of female victims of bullying and cyberbullying was higher than the percentage of male victims; (b) males claimed to participate in significantly more face to face aggression and cyberbullying behaviors than women; (c) the percentage of female observers of bullying was higher than that of males, and significantly more in relation to cyberbullying; and (d) the percentage of victims of bullying and cyberbullying was similar between males and females. Conclusion. Males are more frequently aggressors while females are more frequently victims. gender roles could be considered a possible influence and a greater sensitivity of girls in these issues.

Resumo Escopo. Identificar a possibilidade de existência de diferenças entre sexos em condutas de bullying e cyberbullying entre adolescentes de La Rioja, Espanha. Metodologia. A amostra esteve constituída por 979 adolescentes, 50.45% homens e 49.5% mulheres, entre os 13 e os 18 anos de idade, e foi aplicada a bateria Cyberbullying Screening para explorar o acosso entre iguais. Resultados. Os resultados evidenciaram que: (a) tem um maior porcentagem de mulheres vítimas de bullying e cyberbullying; (b) os homens disseram ser mais agressores que as mulheres, tanto em condutas de bullying como de cyberbullying; (c) as mulheres dizem observar mais condutas de bullying e cyberbullying que os homens, sendo significativa a diferença com respeito a este último; e (d) a porcentagem de vítimas de agressões cara a cara e cyberbullying é similar entre homens e mulheres, sendo não significativa a diferença. Conclusão. Estes dados evidenciam que os homens sao mais agressores, enquanto as mulheres são maiormente vítimas, pelo qual, é importante ter presente a diferencia de roles de gênero e sua implicação nos programas de prevenção.

Bullying y cyberbullying: diferencias en función del sexo en estudiantes de quinto y sexto curso de educación primaria / Bullying and Cyberbullying: Sex-Based Differences in the 5th and 6th Grade of Primary Education

Resumen La literatura científica ha encontrado resultados discrepantes en el análisis de las diferencias en función del sexo en bullying y sobre todo en cyberbullying. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar estas diferencias entre sexos en una muestra del último ciclo de educación primaria del País Vasco. Se administró el test "Cyberbullying: Screening de acoso entre iguales", a 1.993 (edad media = 10,68) participantes, el 50,2% niños y el 48,8% niñas. En bullying los resultados muestran similar porcentaje de víctimas-puras, agresores-puros y observadores en ambos sexos; únicamente se confirmó un porcentaje mayor de niños víctimas-agresivas. Analizando las conductas sufridas y perpetradas, se encontró que un porcentaje significativamente mayor de niños participaba como víctima, agresor y observador de agresiones físicas, verbales y psicológicas. La puntuación media de conducta sufrida, realizada y observada fue también significativamente mayor en los niños. En cyberbullying los porcentajes en ambos sexos en todos los roles fueron similares. Sin embargo, al analizar las conductas, se encontró que un porcentaje mayor de niños es víctima de agresiones para grabarlas y subirlas a internet y que observa llamadas anónimas para asustar, mientras que un mayor porcentaje de niñas observa conductas de acoso sexual. Finalmente, la puntuación media de cibervictimización fue significativamente mayor en los niños. Este estudio aporta información sobre una problemática de interés y resalta la importancia de crear programas de intervención para niños y niñas de estas edades.

Abstract The scientific literature has found dissenting results upon analyzing gender-based differences in bullying - and especially in cyberbullying. This study undertook to analyze these differences between sexes in a sample of the last cycle of primary education in the Basque Country. The "Cyberbullying: Screening of peer harassment" test was administered to 1993 participants (average age = 10.68) - 50.2% boys and 48.8% girls. As for bullying the results show a similar percentage of pure-victims, pure-bullies and bystanders in both sexes; only a higher percentage of victim-aggressive children was confirmed. Upon analyzing the behaviors suffered and perpetrated, it was found that a significantly higher percentage of children participated as victims, aggressors and bystanders of physical, verbal and psychological aggressions. The average score of behavior suffered, perpetrated and observed was also significantly higher in boys. Percentages in cyberbullying in both sexes were similar in all the roles. However, upon analyzing said behaviors, it was found that a greater percentage of children are victims of assaults (recording said assaults and uploading them to the Internet), and that they receive anonymous calls to scare them, whilst a greater percentage of girls observe behaviors of sexual harassment. Finally, the average cybervictimization score was significantly higher in children. This study provides information on a problem of public interest, and underscores the importance of creating intervention programs for children of these ages.

Prevalencia de Bullying y Cyberbullying en Latinoamérica: una revisión / Prevalence of Bullying and Cyberbullying in Latin America: a review

El objetivo de este trabajo consiste en realizar una revisión sistemática de las investigaciones que aportan porcentajes de víctimas y agresores de bullying y cyberbullying en Latinoamérica (2005-2018). Con esta finalidad se utilizan las principales bases de datos (Scopus, WebOfScience, ERIC). Se han encontrado 51 estudios, 35 sobre bullying, 10 de cyberbullying y 6 aportan información de ambas modalidades de acoso. Los resultados evidencian una alta prevalencia de bullying y, aunque en menor medida también de cyberbullying, en todos los países de Latinoamérica donde el fenómeno ha sido estudiado (Colombia, México, Argentina, Brasil, Bolivia, Perú, Chile, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Panamá, Ecuador, y Puerto Rico). La revisión confirma una significativa prevalencia de bullying ocasional/frecuente (víctimas 4.6%-50%; agresores 4%-34.9%) y de cyberbullying ocasional/frecuente (cibervíctimas 3.5%-17.5%; ciberagresores 2.5%-58%). La mayoría de los implicados son varones. El tipo de acoso más frecuente es el verbal, seguido del psicológico y el físico. Aunque el bullying cara-a-cara, especialmente la violencia física, disminuye con la edad, el cyberbullying sigue presente en la adolescencia tardía y la juventud. Entre las conductas de cyberbullying más frecuentes identificadas en esta revisión caben destacar: envío de mensajes desagradables, insultos, amenazas, realizar comentarios y hacer circular rumores para desprestigiar o ridiculizar a la víctima, difundir fotos y vídeos ofensivos para la víctima, robo de la contraseña... La magnitud de los datos epidemiológicos hallados en esta revisión enfatiza la necesidad de seguir investigando el tema, además de implementar programas de prevención/intervención del bullying/cyberbullying, durante la infancia, la adolescencia y la juventud.

The aim of this work was to carry out a systematic review of the researches that provide percentages of victims and perpetrators of bullying and cyberbullying in Latin America (2005-2018). For this purpose the following main databases were used: Scopus; WebOfScience; ERICScopus; WebOfScience; and ERIC. A total of 51 studies were found: 35 on bullying, 10 on cyberbullying, and 6 that provide information about both types of harassment. The results show a high prevalence of bullying and also cyberbullying (to a lesser extent) in all the countries of Latin America where the phenomenon has been studied (Colombia; Mexico; Argentina; Brazil; Bolivia; Peru; Chile; Nicaragua; Venezuela; Panama; Ecuador; and Puerto Rico). Such systematic review confirms a significant prevalence of occasional/frequent bullying (4.6% - 50% victims; 4%-34.9% bullies) and of occasional/frequent cyberbullying (3.5% - 17.5% cybervictims; 2.5% - 58% cyberbullies). Most of those involved are males. The most frequent type of bullying is verbal, followed psychological and physical bullying. Although face-to-face bullying (especially physical violence) decreases with age, cyberbullying is still present in late adolescence and youth. Among the noteworthy cyberbullying behaviors identified in this review are: sending nasty messages; insults; threats; making comments or spreading rumors to discredit or ridicule the victim; disseminating pictures and videos that are offensive to the victim; password theft; among others. The magnitude of the epidemiological data found in this review emphasizes the need to further investigate the issue, in addition to implementing bullying/cyberbullying prevention/inter vention programs during childhood, adolescence and youth

Perceived parenting and adolescents' adjustment

Abstract Adolescence is an important developmental period that is characterised by heightened problems of adjustment. The aim of this study is to analyse adolescents' adjustment, and to explore the typologies and dimensions of parenting, and thus to determine the relationships between these factors. The sample comprised 1285 adolescent students aged 12 to 16 from the Basque Country (Spain). The students filled out the self-report of the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) and the Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire, (PARQ/Control). Differences by age were found in the adolescents' school maladjustment and parenting style perception. Moreover, perceptions of little parental warmth were related to higher levels of clinical and school maladjustment, and the lower the parental control, the greater the clinical maladjustment. Finally, the results obtained revealed that the interaction between the mothers' and fathers' parenting styles was significant only for clinical maladjustment; those students with neglectful mothers and authoritative fathers presented the highest level of clinical maladjustment, followed by other combinations of neglectful mothers. Furthermore, the students from neglectful and authoritarian families presented the highest levels of school maladjustment, without differences between neglectful and authoritarian or between indulgent and authoritative families.

Efectos de un programa de inteligencia emocional en factores socioemocionales y sintomas psicosomáticos / Effects of an emotional intelligence program on socioemotional factors Emotional and psychosomatic symptoms

Resumen El estudio tuvo dos objetivos: (a) evaluar los efectos de un programa que fomenta la inteligencia emocional, y (b) explorar si el programa afectó diferencialmente en función del sexo. La muestra se configuró con 148 adolescentes (13-16 años). El estudio utilizó un diseño cuasiexperimental de medidas repetidas pretest-postest con grupos de control. Se administraron cuatro instrumentos de evaluación antes y después del programa así como en el seguimiento un año después de concluir la intervención. Los instrumentos administrados evalúan las variables dependientes objeto de estudio: inteligencia emocional, felicidad, salud física y grandes rasgos de personalidad. Los análisis de covarianza pretest-postest evidenciaron que el programa aumentó significativamente la inteligencia emocional en los participantes experimentales y disminuyó los síntomas psicosomáticos. La felicidad aumentó, pero las diferencias no fueron estadísticamente significativas. Los análisis de covarianza pretest-seguimiento evidenciaron un aumento de la inteligencia emocional y la felicidad, así como una disminución de los síntomas psicosomáticos y la inestabilidad emocional. En general no se encontraron diferencias significativas en función del sexo. El debate plantea la importancia de implementar programas para fomentar el desarrollo socioemocional.

Abstract This study pursued two objectives: (a) evaluating the effects of an intervention program to develop emotional intelligence; and (b) exploring whether the program had an impact, differentially by gender. The sample included 148 adolescents (13-16 years old). The study used a quasi-experimental repeated measurements pre-test-post-test design, with control groups. Four assessment tools were administered before and after the program, as well as in the follow-up. The tools administered assess the dependent variables under study: emotional intelligence, happiness, physical health, and personality traits. The analysis of pre-test-posttest covariance revealed that the program significantly stimulated an increase in the emotional intelligence in the experimental participants, thereby decreasing psychosomatic symptoms. Happiness increased, but the change was not statistically significant. The analysis of pre-testfollow- up covariance confirmed that the program significantly enhanced emotional intelligence and happiness, decreasing psychosomatic symptoms and emotional instability. In general, there were no significant changes as regards gender. The discussion focuses on the importance of implementing programs to promote social-emotional development during adolescence.

Síntomas psicopatológicos en personas con fibromialgia: Una reflexión / Psychopathological symptoms in people with fibromyalgia: A reflection

El estudio realizado tuvo como objetivos comparar si existen diferencias en diversos síntomas psicopatológicos entre personas con y sin Fibro­mialgia (FM) de ambos sexos y analizar el inicio de los síntomas en la biografía de las personas con FM. Participaron 190 sujetos españoles: 140 con FM y 50 sin FM (10 varones, 180 mujeres). Con un diseño descriptivo y comparativo de corte transversal, se administró el Cuestionario de 90 Síntomas-Revisado (SCL-90-R). Los ANOVAs confirmaron que: (1) las personas con FM de ambos sexos comparadas con las que no tienen FM muestran puntuaciones medias significativamente más altas en todos los síntomas psicopatológicos (somatización, obsesión-compulsión, sensibilidad interpersonal, depresión, ansiedad, hostilidad, ansiedad fóbica, ideación paranoide, psicoticismo) y en los tres índices. Los síntomas más frecuentes fueron los de somatización, obsesión-compulsión, depresión y ansiedad, (2) las personas con FM comparadas con la muestra no-clínica del test tenían puntuaciones percentilares mayores o iguales a 95 en muchos síntomas (somatización, obsesión-compulsión, sensibilidad interpersonal, depresión, ansiedad) y en todos los índices. En el Índice Sintomático General (GSI) el 94.3% obtuvo percentiles mayores o iguales a 80. Sin embargo, comparadas con la muestra clínica del test (pacientes psiquiátricos), únicamente tuvieron percentiles altos (≥ 90) en somatización, y en el GSI solo el 30.7% tuvo percentiles mayores o iguales a 80 y (3) únicamente el 23.6% de las personas con FM presentó antecedentes psicopatológicos / psiquiátricos previos, lo que sugiere que la psicopatología en muchos pacientes se desarrolla después de la FM. El estudio realizado tiene importantes implicaciones para el tratamiento de la FM.

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic syndrome of unknown etiology, complex and variable evolution, provoking generalized pain that can become incapacitating. It affects the biological, psychological, and social spheres, and is an important health problem due to its prevalence, morbidity, and high rates of use and consumption of health resources. FM is described as the existence of generalized pain of more than three months' duration, absence of other causal pathology, and comorbidity with other syndromes and symptoms, such as chronic fatigue, nonremedial sleep, cognitive deficit, and numerous somatic and emotional symptoms, such as anxiety and depression. In 1992, FM was recognized by the World Health Organization and typified in the International Classification of Diseases (CIE-10) within rheumtological diseases. The prevalence of FM in developed countries is between 1 and 4%, and in Spanish population, it is 2.4%, with 4.2% infemales and .2% in males. Although many studies agree about the presence of psychopathology in FM, its frequency and intensity are variable and there is little evidence about the premorbid situation of the affected people, and therefore, about role of psychopathology in its pathogenesis. It is known that many people with FM have psychopathological symptoms (anxiety, depression), but the studies differ about whether psychopathology is the origin of FM or whether all people with FM have psychopathological disorders. The goals of the study were to determine possible differences in diverse psychopathological symptoms in people of both sexes with and without FM and to analyze the onset of the symptoms in the biography of people with FM. The study was performed with 190 Spanish participants, 140 with FM (73.7%) and 50 without FM (26.3%). The participants were aged between 28 and 75 years (M = 52.16; SD ­= 9.18), 10 were male (5.3%) and 180 female (94.7%). A descriptive, comparative, cross-sectional design was used and the 90-Symptoms Checklist Revised (SCL-90-R - Derogatis,1983 /2002) was administered. The ANOVAs confirmed that: (1) compared with people who did not have FM, people with FM of both sexes obtained significantly higher mean scores in all the psychopathological symptoms (somatization, obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, psychoticism) and in all three indices. The most frequent symptoms were somatization, obsession-compulsion, depression, and anxiety; (2) compared with the nonclinical sample of the test, people with FM had percentile scores greater than or equal many symptoms (somatization, obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety) and in all the indices. In the Global Severity Index (GSI), 94.3% of FM patients obtained percentiles of greater than or equal 80. However, compared with the clinical sample of the test (psychiatric patients), FM patients only obtained high percentiles (≥ 90) in somatization, and in the GSI, only 30.7% obtained percentiles greater than or equal 80; and (3) only 23.6% of the people with FM presented prior psychiatric / psychopathological antecedents, suggesting that, in many patients, psychopathology develops after FM. To conclude, we confirm the emotional suffering undergone by most people with FM, and the psychologist's importance in the multidisciplinary treatment of this disease. Beyond the debate about whether psychopathological symptoms are the cause or the effect of FM, empirical evidence reveals a high level of psychopathological symptoms (especially somatization, obsession-compulsion, anxiety, and depression) in a large part of the people with FM, which allows us to emphasize the great support that mental health professionals can provide to these patients. The study has important implications for the treatment of FM.

Efectos de Cyberprogram 2. 0 en factores del desarrollo socioemocional / Effects of Cyberprogram 2. 0 on Factors of Socio-Emotional Development. / Efeitos de Cyberprogram 2. 0 em fatores do desenvolvimento sócio-emocional.

Objetivo. Desde los años ochenta, la violencia entre iguales ha suscitado una gran preocupación dentro de la comunidad científica y ha generado un intenso debate social. El principal objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar los efectos de un programa antibullying (Cyberprogram2.0) en factores del desarrollo socioemocional y en la violencia. Método. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 176 adolescentes españoles, de 13 a 15 años (77 hombres, 99 mujeres), de los cuales 93 fueron asignados aleatoriamente a la condición experimental y 83 a la de control. Se empleó un diseño cuasi-experimental postest con grupo de control equivalente. El programa contiene actividades para prevenir/reducir el bullying/cyberbullying. La intervención consistió en realizar 19 sesiones de una hora de duración durante un curso escolar. Al finalizar la intervención, se administró el Cuestionario de Evaluación del Programa CEP-Cyberprogram-2.0. Resultados. Los ANOVA postest confirmaron que el programa estimuló una mejora significativa de los experimentales en diversas cogniciones, emociones y conductas asociadas al desarrollo socioemocional y a la disminución de la violencia (F [41,134] = 58.82, p < 0.001; n² = 0.95; r = 0.97). La intervención afectó similarmente a ambos sexos. Conclusión. La discusión se centra en la importancia de implementar programas para prevenir la violencia y fomentar el desarrollo socioemocional.

Objective. Peer violence has raised much concern within the scientific community since the 1980s, generating an intense social debate. The main goal of the study was to assess the effects of an antibullying program (Cyberprogram 2,0) on factors of socio-emotional development and on violence. Method. A sample of 176 Spanish adolescents was used, aged between 13 and 15 years (77 males, 99 females), of whom 93 were randomly assigned to the experimental condition and 83 to the control condition. We used a quasi-experimental posttest design with an equivalent control group. The program contains activities to prevent and reduce bullying/ cyberbullying. The intervention consisted of 19 one-hour sessions carried out during the school term. After completing the intervention, the CEP-Cyberprogram-2.0 Assessment Questionnaire was administered. Results. The posttest ANOVAs confirmed that the program stimulated a significant improvement in the experimental adolescents in diverse cognitions, emotions, and behaviors associated with socio-emotional development and a decrease of violence, (F[41,134] = 58.82, p < 0.001; n² = 0.95; r = 0.97). The intervention affected both sexes similarly. Conclusion. The discussion focuses on the importance of implementing programs to prevent violence and promote socio-emotional development.

Escopo. Desde a década dos 80's, a violência entre iguais tem suscitado uma grande preocupação dentro da comunidade científica e tem gerado um intenso debate social. O principal objetivo de este estudo foi avaliar os efeitos de um programa antibullying (Cyberprogram 2.0) em fatores do desenvolvimento sócio-emocional e na violência. Metodologia. A amostra esteve composta por 176 adolescentes espanhóis, de 13 a 15 anos (77 homens, 99 mulheres), dos quais 93 foram assignados aleatoriamente à condição experimental e 83 à de controle. Foi empregado um desenho quase-experimental post-teste com um grupo de controle equivalente. O controle contem atividades para prevenir/reduzir o bullying/cyberbullying. A intervenção consistiu em fazer 19 sessões de uma hora de duração durante um curso escolar. Ao finalizar a intervenção, foi administrado o Questionário de Avaliação do Programa CEP-Cyberprogram-2.0. Resultados. Os ANOVA post-teste confirmaram que o programa estimulou uma melhora significativa dos experimentais em diversas cognições, emociones e condutas associadas ao desenvolvimento sócio-emocional e à diminuição da violência (F[41,134] = 58.82, p < 0.001; n² = 0.95; r = 0.97). A intervenção afetou similarmente em ambos sexos. Conclusão. A discussão está centrada na importância de implementar programas para prevenir a violência e fomentar o desenvolvimento sócio-emocional.

Bullying y cyberbulling: diferencias entre colegios públicos-privados y religiosos-laicos / Bullying and Cyberbullying: Differences between Public-Private and Religious-Secular Schools / Bullying e cyberbullying: diferenças entre escolas públicas-privadas e religiosas-laicas

Objetivo. Analizar diferencias en el bullying presencial y el cyberbulling entre colegios públicos-privados y religiosos-laicos. Método. Participaron 3026 adolescentes y jóvenes del País Vasco (España), de 12 a 18 años (48.5% varones y 51.5% mujeres). Se administró el Test Cyberbullying (Garaigordobil, 2013) para evaluar el bullying cara a cara y el cyberbulling. El diseño de investigación fue descriptivo y comparativo de corte transversal. Resultados. Los resultados evidenciaron: (a) la cantidad de conductas de bullying que sufren, realizan y observan es similar en centros públicos y privados; en cyberbulling la cantidad de conductas que sufren y realizan es similar, aunque en los centros privados se observa mayor cantidad de conductas; (b) el porcentaje de víctimas, agresores y observadores de bullying fue similar en centros públicos y privados; entre tanto, el porcentaje de cibervíctimas y ciberagresores fue similar, sin embargo el porcentaje de ciberobservadores fue mayor en los centros privados; (c) la cantidad de conductas de bullying y cyberbulling que sufren las víctimas y realizan los agresores fue similar en los centros religiosos y laicos, sin embargo en los religiosos se observaron más conductas de bullying y cyberbulling; y (d) se encontró un mayor porcentaje de agresores y observadores de bullying en centros religiosos, no obstante el porcentaje de víctimas de bullying, cibervíctimas, ciberagresores y ciberobservadores fue similar en los colegios religiosos y laicos. Conclusión. El debate se centra en la presencia del acoso en todos los centros educativos, con independencia del nivel socioeconómico y la orientación religiosa de los mismos.

Objective. The purpose of the study was to analyze the differences in presential bullying and cyberbullying between public-private and religious-secular schools. Method. Participants were 3,026 adolescents from the Basque Country (Spain), aged between 12 and 18 years, (48.5% males and 51.5% females). The Cyberbullying Test (Garaigordobil, 2013) was administered to assess "face-to-face" bullying and cyberbullying. The investigation used a descriptive and comparative cross-sectional design. Results. The results showed: (a) in bullying, the quantity of behaviors suffered, carried out, and observed is similar in public and private centers; in cyberbullying, the quantity of behaviors suffered and carried out is similar, but a greater number of behaviors is observed in private centers; (b) in bullying, the percentage of victims, aggressors, and observers was similar in public and private centers; in cyber-bullying, the percentage of cyber-victims and cyber-aggressors was similar, but the percentage of cyber-observers was higher in private centers; (c) the quantity of bullying and cyberbullying behaviors suffered by victims and carried out by aggressors was similar in religious and secular centers, but in religious centers, more bullying and cyberbullying behaviors were observed; and (d) in bullying, a higher percentage of aggressors and observers was found in religious centers, but the percentage of victims of bullying, cyber-victims, cyber-aggressors, and cyber-observers was similar in religious and secular schools. Conclusion. The debate focuses on the presence of bullying in all the schools, independently of their socioeconomic level and religious orientation.

Escopo. Analisar diferenças no bullying presencial e o cyberbullying entre escolas públicas -privadas e religiosas- laicas. Metodologia. Participaram 3026 adolescentes e jovens do País Vasco (Espanha) de 12 a 18 anos de idade (48.5% homens e 51.5% mulheres). Foi administrado o Test Cyberbullying (Garaigordobil, 2013) para avaliar o bullying cara a cara e o cyberbullying. O desenho de pesquisa foi descritivo e comparativo de corte transversal. Resultados. Os resultados evidenciaram: a) que a quantidade de condutas de bullying que sofrem, realizam e observam é similar em centros públicos e privados; em cyberbullying a quantidade de condutas que sofrem e realizam é similar, ainda que nos centros privados foram observados uma maior quantidade de condutas; b) que a porcentagem de vitimas, agressores e observadores de bullying foi similar em centros públicos e privados; entre tanto, a porcentagem de cyber-vitimas e cyber-agressores foi similar, contudo, a porcentagem de cyber-observadores foi maior nos centros privados; c) que a quantidade de condutas de bullying e cyberbullying que sofrem as vitimas e realizam os agressores foi similar nos centros religiosos e laicos, contudo, nos religiosos foram observadas mais condutas de bullying e cyberbullying; e d) foi achada uma maior porcentagem de agressores e observadores de bullying em centros religiosos, contudo, a porcentagem de vitimas de bullying, cyber-vitimas, cyber-agressores e cyber-observadores foi similar em escolas religiosas e laicas. Conclusão. O debate está centrado na presencia do acosso em todos os centros educativos com independência do nível socioeconómico e a orientação religiosa.

Sexismo, personalidad, psicopatología y actividades de tiempo libre en adolescentes colombianos: Diferencias en función del nivel de desarrollo de la ciudad de residencia / Sexism, Personality, Psychopathology, and Leisure Activities in Colombian Adolescents: Differences as a Function of the Level of Development of the City of Residence

El estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar las diferencias entre los adolescentes de dos ciudades colombianas (Barranquilla y Bogotá) con niveles de desarrollo distintos, en sexismo, rasgos de personalidad, competencias sociales, síntomas psicopatológicos y actividades de tiempo libre. La muestra fue de 846 adolescentes colombianos de catorce a dieciséis años, 51,7% de Barranquilla y 48,3% de Bogotá (59,3% varones; 40,7% mujeres). Se administraron siete instrumentos de evaluación con garantías de fiabilidad y validez, utilizando un diseño de investigación descriptivo y comparativo de corte transversal. Los resultados de los análisis (MANOVA, T-test) confirmaron que: 1) Los adolescentes de ambas ciudades tenían similares niveles de sexismo hostil y neosexismo, sin embargo, en sexismo benevolente, ambivalente y en ideología de rol sexual los de Barranquilla tuvieron puntuaciones significativamente superiores; 2) Los adolescentes de Barranquilla manifestaron puntuaciones significativamente superiores en autoconcepto, extraversión, amabilidad, responsabilidad, conductas de sensibilidad social, ayuda-colaboración, seguridad-firmeza en la interacción y liderazgo prosocial; mientras que los de Bogotá tuvieron puntuaciones significativamente superiores en neuroticismo, conductas de agresividad, ansiedad-timidez, y en el índice general de síntomas psicopatológicos; y 3) Los adolescentes colombianos en su tiempo libre realizan mayoritariamente actividades sociales y deportivas, en menor medida artísticas, y escasamente intelectuales; aunque los bogotanos realizan más actividades deportivas que los barranquilleros, en el resto de las actividades no hubo diferencias. Los de Barranquilla, aunque más sexistas, tenían un perfil de personalidad y de conducta social más adaptativo, y menos síntomas psicopatológicos que los de Bogota. La discusión gira en torno a la influencia de la cultura implícita de las ciudades en los patrones de personalidad y psicopatológicos.

The purpose of the study was to analyze the differences between the adolescents from two Colombian cities (Barranquilla and Bogota), with different levels of development, in sexism, personality traits, social competences, psychopathological symptoms, and leisure activities. The sample comprised 846 Colombian adolescents, aged 14 to 16 years, 51.7% from Barranquilla and 48.3% from Bogota (59.3% male; 40.7% female). Seven assessment instruments, with guarantees of reliability and validity, were administered, using a cross-sectional, descriptive, and comparative research design. The results of the analyses (MANOVA, t-test) confirmed that: 1) The adolescents from both cities had similar levels of hostile sexism and neosexism, but in benevolent and ambivalent sexism and in sexual role ideology, the adolescents from Barranquilla scored significantly higher; 2) The adolescents from Barranquilla obtained significantly higher scores in self-concept, extraversion, agreeableness, responsibility, behaviors of social sensitivity, help-collaboration, and firmness in interaction and prosocial leadership; whereas the adolescents from Bogota scored significantly higher in neuroticism, aggressive behaviors, anxiety-shyness, and the global index of psychopathological symptoms; and 3) In their free time, Colombian adolescents usually perform social and sports activities and, to a lesser degree, artistic activities, and few intellectual activities; although the adolescents from Bogota carried out more sports activities than those from Barranquilla, there were no differences in the rest of the activities. Although they were more sexist, the adolescents from Barranquilla had a more adaptive personality and social behavior profile, and fewer psychopathological symptoms than those from Bogota. The implicit influence of culture in personality and psychopathological patterns is discussed.

Empatía y resolución de conflictos durante la infancia y la adolescencia: Empathy and conflict resolution during infancy and adolescence

La investigación ha puesto de relieve la conexión entre la empatía y la capacidad para resolver conflictos. El estudio tuvo tres objetivos: (a) analizar si existen diferencias entre sexos y cambios evolutivos en empatía y resolución de conflictos, (b) explorar las relaciones entre empatía y resolución de conflictos, y (c) identificar variables predictoras de empatía. El estudio utilizó una metodología descriptiva y correlacional de corte transversal. La muestra fue de 941 participantes de 8 a 15 años, 509 chicos y 432 chicas, del País Vasco (España). Los resultados confirmaron lo siguiente: (a) Las chicas tienen puntuaciones superiores en empatía en todas las edades; durante la infancia la empatía no aumenta, y durante la adolescencia se confirma un incremento con la edad pero únicamente en las chicas, (b) Las chicas utilizan más estrategias de resolución de conflictos positivas-cooperativas y los chicos más agresivas; el uso de estrategias positivas-cooperativas no aumenta con la edad, y (c) Se confirman correlaciones positivas entre empatía y resolución de conflictos cooperativa, y negativas con resolución agresiva; las variables predictivas de la empatía son: ser mujer, utilizar muchas estrategias de resolución positivas-cooperativas de conflictos y poco agresivas. El trabajo permite concluir que, en estas edades, las chicas tienen nivel superior en la capacidad de empatía y de resolución de conflictos, pero no se observan importantes cambios evolutivos. Además, los resultados sugieren la importancia de implementar programas que incluyan actividades para fomentar la empatía ya que incidirán positivamente en la capacidad de resolución cooperativa de conflictos.

Research has revealed the connection between empathy and the capacity to resolve conflicts. The purpose of this study is three-fold: (a) to analyze sex differences and developmental changes in empathy and conflict resolution; (b) to explore the relations between empathy and conflict resolution; (c) to identify predictors of empathy. The study used a descriptive, correlational, and cross-sectional methodology. The sample comprised 941 participants aged 8 to 15 years, 509 boys and 432 girls, from the Basque Country (Spain). The results confirm that: (a) The girls score higher in empathy at all ages; empathy does not increase during childhood, and, an increase with age is confirmed during adolescence, but only in girls; (b) The girls use more positive-cooperative conflict-resolution strategies and the boys use more aggressive strategies; the use of positive-cooperative strategies does not increase with age; (c) Positive correlations between empathy and cooperative conflict resolution and negative correlations with aggressive resolution are confirmed; the predictors of empathy are: being female, using many positive-cooperative conflict-resolution strategies and few aggressive strategies. The work allows us to conclude that, at these ages, girls have a higher capacity of empathy and of conflict resolution, but no important developmental changes are observed. Moreover, the results suggest the importance of implementing programs that include activities to promote empathy because they will have a positive impact on the capacity to solve conflicts cooperatively.

Inteligencia: Diferencias de género y relaciones con factores psicomotrices, conductuales y emocionales en niños de 5 años / Intelligence: Gender differences and relations with psychomotor, behavioral, and emotional factors in 5-year-old children

El estudio que se presenta tuvo dos objetivos: explorar diferencias de género en la inteligencia durante la infancia temprana y analizar la relación existente entre inteligencia (verbal, no verbal, global) y autoconcepto, psicomotricidad, variables conductuales y emocionales. La muestra estuvo constituida por 74 niños de ambos sexos (39.2% niños y 60.8% niñas), españoles de 5 años de edad. Con la finalidad de medir las variables objeto de estudio se administraron los siguientes instrumentos de evaluación: (1) Test Breve de Inteligencia (K-BIT - Kaufman & Kaufman, 1997), (2) Sistema de Evaluaciónde la Conducta en Niños y Adolescentes (BASC- Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004), (3) Escala de Evaluación de la Psicomotricidad en Preescolar (EPP - De la Cruz & Mazaira, 1990), (4) Escalas McCarthy de Aptitudes y Psicomotricidad para Niños (MSCA - McCarthy, 2006), (5) Escala de Evaluación del Autoconcepto Infantil (EA - Garaigordobil, 2007) y (6) el Dibujo de la Figura Humana (DFH - Koppitz, 1993). Para realizar el estudio se utilizó una metodología descriptiva, comparativa y correlacional de corte transversal buscando establecer relaciones de concomitancia de la inteligencia con el autoconcepto, la psicomotricidad y factores conductuales y emocionales. Los resultados del análisis de comparación de medias t-test (t de Student-Fisher) no han evidenciado diferencias de género en la inteligencia verbal (Vocabulario), no verbal (Matrices) y total en este nivel de edad, ni tampoco en la capacidad de pensamiento abstracto manipulativo (Cubos). Los coeficientes de correlación de Pearson han puesto de relieve relaciones positivas de la inteligencia total con autoconcepto, con algunas funciones psicomotrices (coordinación, esquema corporal) y con estabilidad emocional. Además, los participantes con alto nivel de inteligencia total tienen, según los padres, puntuaciones bajas en atipicidad, en somatización y altas en depresión, mientras que según los profesores tienen bajos niveles de hiperactividad, atipicidad, ansiedad,exteriorización de problemas y de síntomas comportamentales.

The study had two goals: (1) to explore gender differences in intelligence during early infancy; and (2) to analyze the relation between intelligence (verbal, nonverbal, global) and self-concept, psychomotricity, and behavioral and emotional variables. The study of the relations between intelligence and these variables is proposed in order to confirm that at early ages, such developmental areas are strongly interrelated, and this will underline the relevance of carrying out integral educational programs in preschool children. In this study, the cognitive definition of intelligence postulated by Kaufman and Kaufman (1997) was adopted. On the basis of the convergence of various cognitive models and in accordance with the contributions of Neurology and Cognitive Psychology, these authors, conceive intelligence in terms of the individual style of information processing. To a great extent, they consider intelligence to be a question of problem-solving capacities and of the effectiveness of individual information-processing skills. They integrate into the concept of intelligence the theory of fluid intelligence (nonverbal skills and the capacity to solve new problems based on the person's aptitude to perceive relations and complete analogies, skills that are not much affected by culture or learning) and of crystallized intelligence (verbal skills related to academic learning that are supported by knowledge of words and by the formation of verbal concepts, skills that depend to agreat extent on formal schooling and cultural experiences). Taking into account the results of previous studies, the investigation proposes five hypotheses: (1) at the age of 5 years, no significant differences in intelligence will be found between boys and girls; (2) intelligence correlates positively with self-concept; (3) intelligence will have significant positive relations with psychomotor development; (4) intelligence will be negatively associated with indicators of emotional stability, and (5) significant negative relations will be found between intelligence and emotional and behavioral problems. The sample is made up of 74 Spanish boys and girls of 5 years of age, 39.2% boys and 60.8% girls. In order to measure the variables, six assessment instruments, with adequate psychometric guarantees, were administered. Assessment included multi-informers (children, parents, tutors) and multi-techniques. The following assessment instruments were administered: the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT; Kaufman & Kaufman, 1997), Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC - Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004), Assessment of Psychomotricity in Preschoolers (EPP; De la Cruz & Mazaira, 1990), McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities (MSCA; McCarthy, 2006), Assessment of Children's Self-concept Scale (EA; Garaigordobil, 2007), and the Human Figure Drawing (HFD; Koppitz, 1993). The cross-sectional study used a descriptive, comparative, and correlational methodology to establish relations of concomitance of intelligence with self-concept, psychomotricity, and behavioral and emotional factors. The results of the t-test (Student-Fisher's t) comparing the means did not reveal gender differences in verbal intelligence (Vocabulary), nonverbal intelligence (Matrixes), or total intelligence at this age level; neither did the capacity of abstract manipulative thinking (Cubes) reveal any differences. The Pearson correlation coefficients revealed positive relations of total intelligence with self-concept, with some psychomotor functions (coordination, corporal schema), and with emotional stability. Moreover, the participants with high levels of total intelligence had, according to the parents, low scores in atypical, somatization, and high scores in depression, whereas according to the teachers they had low levels of hyperactivity, atypical, anxiety, externalizing problems, and behavioral symptoms. The study contributes empirical evidence of the close connections between the diverse dimensions of early infant development, that is, intellectual, psychomotor, social, and affective-emotional development. These data have educational implications and suggest the promotion of global interventions at this developmental stage, both from the viewpoint of development and of therapeutic intervention.

Evaluación del perdón: Diferencias generacionales y diferencias de sexo / Assessment of forgiving: Generational and sex differences

Este estudio tiene dos objetivos: 1) analizar la capacidad de perdón en función de la edad y sexo, y 2) investigar dos aspectos relacionados con el perdón, su definición y las circunstancias o razones que lo facilitan. La metodología del estudio es descriptiva y comparativa. La muestra se configura con 140 participantes, 70 hijos y 70 padres, de ambos sexos y con edades entre 17-25 años y 45-60 años, respectivamente. Los participantes más jóvenes fueron reclutados en instituciones educativas en el país Vasco (España). Para medir las variables dependientes, se utilizan dos instrumentos: la escala de evaluación de la capacidad de perdonar, CAPER, y la escala del perdón y factores facilitadores, ESPER. Los resultados indican que los padres tienen más capacidad de perdón que sus hijos y las mujeres más que los varones. En la definición del perdón, padres e hijos tienen similares concepciones: "falta de rencor, reconciliación y comprensiónempatía"; sin embargo, varones y mujeres tienen más diferencias, aunque para ambos "la falta de rencor" es la primera característica que define el perdón. Sobre las razones que facilitan el perdón, se observan diferencias en función de la edad y del sexo; pese a las diferencias, "que haya arrepentimiento de la otra parte y se pida perdón" así como "que se haga justicia por medio de la ley", son los argumentos que mayor peso tienen. Se discuten las implicaciones de estos resultados.

This study had two goals: 1) to analyze the ability to forgive as a function of age and sex, and 2) to investigate two aspects related to forgiveness, its definition and the circumstances or reasons that facilitate it. The methodology of the study is descriptive and comparative. The sample is made up of 140 participants, 70 sons and daughters and 70 parents, of both sexes and aged between 17-25 and 45-60 years, respectively. The younger participants were recruited from educational institutions from the pais Vasco (Spain). Two instruments were used to measure the dependent variables: CAPER, a scale to assess the ability to forgive, and ESPER, a scale of forgiveness and facilitating factors. The results indicate that parents are more capable of forgiving than their children and women capable more than men. With respect to the definition of forgiveness, parents and children appear to hold similar conception of forgiveness: "lack of resentment, reconciliation and comprehension-empathy"; however, there are differences between men and women, although for both of them, the "lack of resentment" is the first feature that defines forgiveness. Regarding the reasons that facilitate forgiveness, differences as a function of age and sex were observed; despite the differences, the weightiest arguments were "the other person should feel sorry about what he or she did and should apologize" and "justice should be carried out through the law". Implications are discussed.