Facial emotion recognition and its association with symptom severity, functionality, and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia: preliminary results / Reconocimiento facial de emociones y su asociación con la gravedad sintomática, funcionalidad y deterioro cognitivo en esquizofrenia: hallazgos preliminares

Abstract Introduction There is evidence to suggest that individuals with schizophrenia have greater difficulty in recognizing facial emotions, which has been related to cognitive impairment and higher symptom severity in this disease and seems to lead to a worse functional prognosis. Objective To determine the association between facial emotion recognition and symptom severity, functionality, and cognitive impairment in a sample of schizophrenic patients. Method This is an observational, cross-sectional, and correlational study conducted on 72 patients. The following scales: PANSS, MOCA, ERI, and FACT-Sz were used to assess symptom severity in schizophrenia, cognitive functioning, facial emotion recognition, and functionality, respectively. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to measure the linear association between all variables. Results Overall, moderate symptom severity and mild cognitive and functional disability were found. The most frequently recognized emotion was joy (70%) and the least frequently recognized one was anger. A positive association was also found between anger recognition and severity of the PANSS cognitive subscale (r = - .24, p = .03), sadness recognition and severity of the PANSS negative subscale (r = - .24, p = .03), and the FACT-Sz score and fear recognition (r = .31, p = .008). Discussion and conclusion The present study yields preliminary results that provide a broader perspective on facial emotion recognition and, indirectly, social interaction and functionality in people with schizophrenia.

Resumen Introducción Existe evidencia de que los pacientes con esquizofrenia tienen mayor dificultad para reconocer las emociones faciales, lo cual se ha relacionado con el deterioro cognitivo que se manifiesta en esta enfermedad y con una mayor gravedad sintomática, que parece dar lugar a un peor pronóstico funcional. Objetivo Determinar la asociación del reconocimiento facial de emociones con la gravedad sintomática, funcionalidad y deterioro cognitivo en un grupo de pacientes con esquizofrenia. Método Un estudio observacional, transversal y correlacional realizado con 72 pacientes. Se utilizaron las escalas: PANSS, MOCA, ERI y FACT-Sz para evaluar la gravedad sintomática, el funcionamiento cognitivo, el reconocimiento facial de emociones y la funcionalidad, respectivamente. Se utilizó el Coeficiente de Correlación de Pearson para medir la asociación lineal entre dichas variables. Resultados Se encontró de forma global una gravedad sintomática moderada y una discapacidad cognitiva y funcional leve. La alegría fue la emoción más reconocida (70%) y la ira la menos reconocida. Se encontró una asociación positiva entre el reconocimiento de la ira y la gravedad de la subescala cognitiva de la PANSS (r = -.24, p = .03), el reconocimiento de la tristeza y la gravedad de la subescala negativa de la PANSS (r = -.24, p = .03), y la puntuación de la FACT-Sz y el reconocimiento del miedo (r = .31, p = .008). Discusión y conclusión El presente estudio muestra algunos resultados preliminares que nos permiten tener una perspectiva más amplia de lo que ocurre con el reconocimiento facial de emociones en la esquizofrenia y, de forma indirecta, en la interacción social y la disfunción que presentan quienes lo padecen.

Development of the Mexican Version of the Empathy Quotient / Desarrollo de la versión mexicana del Cuestionario de Empatía

Abstract Introduction Empathy is defined as the ability or process to identify and understand other person's situation, feelings, and motives. These responses are essential for relationships and social behavior. Baron-Cohen et al. created the Empathy Quotient (EQ), a scale explicitly designed to have a clinical application. The instrument evaluates three constructs of empathy and several studies around worldwide, but not in Mexico. Objective To examine the psychometric properties and the factor congruence of the EQ in a community sample from Mexico City. Method Cronbach´s alpha coefficient and a correspondence factorial analysis was performed to test the relation between response options and factors from the Exploratory Factor Analysis 200 adults without Axis I disorders through the MINI, filled out the Spanish version of the short version (28-items) of the EQ. An exploratory factor analysis was performed while reliability was tested with Cronbach's alpha. In addition, correspondence factorial analysis and the factor congruence coefficient were determined. Results Five items were eliminated from the original 28-item EQ. From the 23 remaining items, only 16 were grouped in the three original proposed dimensions (cognitive empathy: 8 items, emotional reactivity: 4 items and social skills: 3 items), while one item showed communality with a different domain from the one originally proposed. Reliability was adequate (.82) as well as the congruence coefficients (.76 to .99). Discussion and conclusion The EQ Mexican 16-item version is a good tool to assess empathy in a Mexican population.

Resumen Introducción La empatía es definida como la capacidad para identificar y comprender las situaciones, sentimientos y motivaciones de otra persona. Estas respuestas son esenciales para relaciones y comportamientos sociales. Baron-Cohen et al. crearon el cociente de empatía (EQ), una escala diseñada para tener aplicación clínica. El instrumento evalúa tres constructos de empatía y ha probado sus propiedades psicométricas con resultados adecuados en varios estudios mundiales, pero no en México. Objetivo El propósito de este estudio fue examinar las propiedades psicométricas y la congruencia factorial del EQ en una muestra mexicana. Método El alpha de Cronbach y el análisis factorial fueron aplicados para probar la relación entre las opciones de respuesta y los factores en 200 adultos sin diagnóstico, a través de la entrevista MINI. Se utilizó la versión corta en español del EQ y se realizó un análisis factorial exploratorio dónde se probó la confiabilidad con el alfa de Cronbach y se determinó adecuada correspondencia y congruencia factorial. Resultados Se eliminaron cinco reactivos de la escala original de 28 reactivos. De los 23 reactivos restantes, solo 16 se agruparon en las tres dimensiones originales (empatía cognitiva: 8 reactivos, reactividad emocional: 4 reactivos y habilidades sociales: 3 reactivos) mientras que un reactivo mostró una comunalidad con un dominio diferente del original. La confiabilidad fue (.82), así como los coeficientes de congruencia (.76 a .99). Discusión y conclusión La versión del EQ es una buena herramienta para evaluar la empatía en población mexicana.

Association between prolactin serum levels and cognitive function in chronic schizophrenia patients / Asociación de los niveles de prolactina con el funcionamiento cognitivo en pacientes con esquizofrenia crónic

Abstract Introduction Several studies have explored the relationship between serum prolactin levels, symptomatology, and cognitive dysfunction in individuals at high risk for psychosis and patients with a first psychotic episode. However, the relationship between such variables is poorly understood in the case of chronic patients. Objective To assess the relationship between prolactin levels, neuropsychological impairment, and symptom severity in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Method A total of 31 patients with diagnosis of schizophrenia were evaluated between May and December 2018. The age range was 18 to 60 years, with patients receiving antipsychotic treatment during a month at least. Data was obtained from clinical records, interviews, clinimetry, and with the application of the PANSS and the MCCB battery. For the prolactin measurement, the analysis was performed on a sample of 500 microliters of serum, with a chemiluminescence technique. Results The sample was comprised mostly by men (77.4%), with a mean age of 37.65 years, 13.29 years of formal education, and disease duration of 11.58 years. No correlations were observed between prolactin levels and PANSS components and subscales. Only in male patients is there a negative correlation was found between prolactin levels with the overall combined score of the MCCB battery and cognitive domains of reasoning and verbal learning. Discussion and conclusions Men diagnosed with schizophrenia may be particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of hyperprolactinemia on cognition. These preliminary data have clinical implications for close monitoring of prolactin and cognitive decline in males with schizophrenia. Theoretically, these data are suggestive of a protective effect of hormones in women with this condition.

Resumen Introducción Diversos estudios han explorado la relación entre los niveles de prolactina sérica, la sintomatología y la disfunción cognitiva en individuos con alto riesgo de psicosis y pacientes con un primer episodio psicótico. Sin embargo, la relación entre tales variables es poco comprendida en el caso de los pacientes crónicos con esquizofrenia. Objetivo Evaluar la relación entre los niveles de prolactina, el deterioro neuropsicológico y la severidad de los síntomas en pacientes crónicos. Método Se evaluó un total de 31 pacientes. El rango de edad fue de 18 a 60 años, quienes recibieron tratamiento antipsicótico durante un mes como mínimo. Los datos se obtuvieron de entrevistas y de la aplicación de la PANSS y la MCCB. La medición de la prolactina se realizó con una muestra de 500 microlitros de suero, con una técnica de quimioluminiscencia. Resultados La muestra estuvo compuesta en su mayoría por hombres (77.4%), con una edad media de 37.65 años, 13.29 años de escolaridad y una duración de la enfermedad de 11.58 años. No se observaron correlaciones entre los niveles de prolactina y los componentes y subescalas del PANSS. Sólo en los pacientes varones se da una correlación negativa entre los niveles de prolactina con la puntuación global combinada de la batería de MCCB y los dominios cognitivos de razonamiento y aprendizaje verbal. Discusión y conclusiones Los hombres diagnosticados con esquizofrenia pueden ser particularmente vulnerables a los efectos negativos de la hiperprolactinemia sobre la cognición. Teóricamente, estos datos sugieren un efecto protector de las hormonas en las mujeres con esta enfermedad.

Rasgos de personalidad en pacientes con esquizofrenia / Personality traits in patients with schizophrenia

In recent years, research on the comorbidity of personality disorders and other clinical conditions has increased. Nevertheless, it is quite surprising that very little research has been done in terms of personality and its disorders in patients with schizophrenia. Most of the studies related to the binomial construct of personality disorders and schizophrenia are limited to the study of premorbid personality, which emphasizes the importance of the interaction between trait-personality disorder-schizophrenia symptoms. The study of personality in patients with schizophrenia suggests several issues that must be considered, including the trait-state interactions and the role of personality in the course of schizophrenia. The conceptual definition of trait emerges from the dimensional classification of models of personality. In this way, knowing that some personality features are present in all individuals, we can assume that their deviation in a quantitative level results in abnormal personality features that constitute personality disorders or even can be expressed as a specific expression of some schizophrenia symptoms. Although there is growing evidence in the knowledge of schizophrenia, there are very few models that include the scientific neurobio-logical evidence of the disease and personality features. An inclusive model may promote our understanding of the relationship between schizophrenia symptoms and the personality features of the patient who suffers the disease. So far, we are still far from reaching scientific consensus to be unanimously shared by all researchers with respect to both issues. Nevertheless, the importance of personality in schizophrenia is undeniable, so future longitudinal that assess personality characteristics since illness onset should be warranted. These studies may be extremely useful to determine personality stability during the course of the illness and may help to determine the prognosis and treatment implications of personality in schizophrenia.

En los últimos años han proliferado las investigaciones y publicaciones sobre la comorbilidad de los trastornos de personalidad con otras entidades clínicas. En este marco sorprende la escasez de estudios que se centren en la personalidad y sus trastornos en los pacientes con esquizofrenia. Las investigaciones llevadas a cabo en el binomio trastorno de personalidad-esquizofrenia se han limitado al estudio de la personalidad premórbida, las cuales se orientan hacia la importancia de la interacción rasgo-trastorno de personalidad-síntomas en la esquizofrenia. El estudio de la personalidad en la esquizofrenia sugiere varias cuestiones que deben ser consideradas, incluyendo las interacciones rasgo-estado y la función de la personalidad en la esquizofrenia. El concepto de rasgo surge en los modelos dimensionales de clasificación de la personalidad. Si consideramos que los rasgos de la personalidad están presentes en todos los individuos, cabría decir que una desviación en el nivel cuantitativo de los mismos caracteriza los rasgos anormales que constituirán los trastornos de personalidad o en una expresión específica de los síntomas de la esquizofrenia. A pesar de los avances crecientes en el conocimiento de la esquizofrenia, existen pocos modelos que integren los avances neurobiológicos con la personalidad, lo cual permitiría un mayor entendimiento de la relación entre los síntomas de la esquizofrenia y la personalidad del individuo que la padece. Hasta el momento, aún nos encontramos lejos de poder alcanzar acuerdos científicos que sean compartidos unánimemente por todos los investigadores con respecto a ambas cuestiones. Sin embargo, la importancia de la personalidad en la esquizofrenia es innegable, lo que hace necesario la realización de estudios longitudinales que evalúen de forma específica las características de la personalidad desde el inicio de la esquizofrenia para poder determinar su estabilidad o variabilidad de acuerdo al curso del padecimiento y sus implicaciones pronósticas y de tratamiento.

Estimulación magnética transcraneal para síntomas negativos en la esquizofrenia: una revisión / The transcraneal magnetic stimulation for the negative symptoms in schizofrenia: a review

Schizophrenia is one of the most studied diseases in psychiatry and different dysfunctions of thinking, emotions, perception, movement, and behavior converge in it. These dysfunctions affect the quality of life of the patients in different ways. It is a disease that has been observed in the whole world, with a 0.5 to 1.5% prevalence among adults. Although the biological basis of schizophrenia is not clear enough, the dopaminergic hypothesis is preponderant in our understanding of the symptoms of the disease. A mesolimbic pathway hyperactivity is related to a positive symptomathology, while a prefrontal dopaminergic hypofunction relates to negative symptoms. It has been observed that using serotoninergic antagonists, which promote dopaminergic activity in the prefrontal cortex, translates in to a reduction of the intensity of negative symptoms. This negative syndrome includes a difficulty to initiate new activities (apathy), speech and creativity impoverishment (alogia), alterations in emotional expression, and a lack of capacity to experiment joy. Patients with negative symptoms present gray and white matter loss in left-sided cerebral structures, including temporal lobe, anterior cingulated, and medial frontal cortex. Such a loss seems to be more evident in prefrontal regions, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal region, which connects with anterior temporal structures. Persistent negative symptomathology is a concept proposed by Buchanan, which must fulfill the following criteria: symptoms are primary to the disease or secondary but have not responded to current treatment; interfere with the patient's capacity to accomplish normal functioning; persist during periods of clinical stability, and represent an unresolved therapeutic need. They must be measurable by clinical scales and persist, at least, six months. The Food and Drug Administration has recently considered negative symptoms as an investigation target or new treatments due to their prevalence and high negative impact in the life of the schizophrenic population. Nowadays, the current treatments available for such an entity are second generation antipshycotics and glutamatergic agents -such as d-cycloserine and glicine-, amisulpiride and seleginine, even though their efficacy is limited. Dysfunction of the human prefrontal cortex is considered to be implicated in the pathophisiology of negative symptoms. This cerebral region is essential in the regulation of emotions and cognition. Multiple neural networks begin in the prefrontal cortex and go towards other cortical association areas, to insular region, thalamic structures, basal ganglia and limbic system. It regulates dopaminergic mesencephalic activity through activating and inhibitory pathways, allowing a precise regulation of dopaminergic activity. This double modulation model of dopaminergic pathways has been recently sustained by studies which prove that extracellular dopaminergic concentration in nucleus accumbens increases or reduces after a high or low frequency stimulation of the prefrontal cortex, respectively. A prefrontal cortex lesion causes a syndrome similar to the negative symptomathology in schizophrenia. Transcraneal magnetic stimulation (TMS) could be effective in the treatment of negative symptoms by activating the prefrontal cortex, maybe by stimulating the liberation of dopamine in the mesolimbic and mesoestriatal pathways which have a crucial role in the pathogenesis of negative symptoms such as apathy and anhedonia. TMS was introduced in 1985 and since the early 90's its potential as a treatment has been tested in numerous neurological and psychiatric conditions. It is a noninvasive means of stimulating nervous cells in superficial areas of the brain. During a TMS procedure, an electrical current passes through a wire coil placed over the scalp. This induces a magnetic field that can produce a substantive electrical field in the brain. This electrical field produces in turn a depolarization of nervous cells resulting in the stimulation or disruption of brain activity. TMS may be applied as a single stimulus or repeated many times per second (repetitive TMS), with variations in the intensity, site, and orientation of the magnetic field. Most research and interest has focused on the potential application of repetitive TMS (rTMS) in the treatment of depression. In addition, in recent years an increasing number of open and double-blinded studies of rTMS were conducted in patients with schizophrenia. Most investigators have chosen to focus on the treatment of specific refractory symptoms or syndromes within the disorder such as refractory auditory hallucinations or persistent negative symptoms. TMS has become widely used in research, especially as a method to probe normal and abnormal brain function, motor cortical physiology, and cognition. Regarding negative symptoms in schizophrenia, eleven studies using TMS were carried out until 2006, with a total of 172 patients studied. These studies are difficult to compare because they used different stimulation parameters and the symptoms described were heterogenic. Six studies were blind and five were open, using high frequency TMS in all of them (frequencies above 1 Hz), which is the type of stimulation most commonly used in treatment studies. Six of these studies found a reduction in the severity of the symptoms, but the reduction was not significant in two of them. Ten were the maximum number of sessions included in every study, except for one, in which 20 sessions of TMS were given. In this study, the score of negative subscale of the PANSS was reduced in 33%, which is considered a significant response, and this result was sustained within the next month. In one of these studies, researchers compared 3- and 20-Hz stimulation with sham stimulation and stimulation provided at the patient's individual alpha frequency. Alpha-frequency stimulation was calculated as the patient's peak alpha frequency from five frontal EEG leads. Stimulation of alpha frequency resulted in a significantly greater reduction in negative symptoms than the other conditions. This finding could suggest that negative symptoms may specifically relate to alpha EEG oscillations, which is interesting and requires further exploration and confirmation. Another two studies were conducted in 2007; in the first one, no improvement in negative, positive of affective symptoms was found. The second one, which was a double-blinded clinical trial, found a significant reduction in the intensity of negative, positive, and general symptoms with the active TMS. We should remark that TMS produces changes in the cortical activity in ventral and dorsoestratial regions, but other cerebral regions could be stimulated too, since some activation abnormalities in the left globus palidus, bilateral caudate nucleus, prefrontal, and temporal right cortex have been found and are associated with the etiology of the negative syndrome. In addition, it will be interesting to see whether changes in subcortical dopamine release, which were shown with rTMS in normal volunteers, can be demonstrated in clinical populations, such as patients with schizophrenia, and how this may relate to response to treatment. There is still a need for a larger number of controlled studies, with larger samples, longer periods of evaluation, and constant stimulation parameters, so they can be compared between them and the exact efficacy of TMS as a treatment for negative symptoms can be established.

La estimulación magnética transcraneal (EMT) es un método no invasivo que utiliza campos magnéticos alternantes para inducir corrientes eléctricas en el tejido cortical en diferentes áreas cerebrales. Se considera una forma de tratamiento para diferentes trastornos psiquiátricos, especialmente en la depresión, adicciones y esquizofrenia. Está técnica terapéutica ofrece una vía innovadora para estudiar la excitabilidad de la corteza, la conectividad regional cortical, la plasticidad de las respuestas cerebrales y las funciones cognitivas en el estado del enfermo. Aunque se han documentado resultados positivos en la estimulación de la CPF izquierda y en la CPF derecha, se sugiere que puede ejercer su acción beneficiosa a través de diversos mecanismos de acción aún no comprendidos en su totalidad. La corteza prefrontal humana es esencial en el control e integración de las emociones, la cognición y la regulación del Sistema Nervioso Autónomo. Numerosas conexiones neuronales bidireccionales se originan en la CPF y se extienden al resto de las áreas de asociación cortical, región insular, sistema límbico y los ganglios basales. La CPF modula la actividad dopaminérgica mesencefálica mediante una vía activadora y otra inhibidora, lo que permite una regulación sumamente fina de la actividad dopaminérgica. La vía activadora funciona por medio de proyecciones glutamatérgicas directas e indirectas a las células dopaminérgicas. La vía inhibitoria hace lo propio mediante eferencias glutamatérgicas prefrontales a las interneuronas GABAérgicas mesencefálicas y a las neuronas GABAérgicas estriatomesencefálicas. El modelo de la doble modulación del sistema dopaminérgico mesolímbico demuestra que la concentración dopaminérgica extracelular en el núcleo accumbens disminuye o aumenta después de la estimulación de la corteza prefrontal a baja o alta frecuencia, respectivamente. Dentro de los estudios que utilizan la EMT en la esquizofrenia, se ha encontrado que, tras una EMT de alta frecuencia (>1Hz) o repetititiva (EMTr), hay un aumento de la excitabilidad en varias áreas cerebrales, mientras que la excitabilidad cortical disminuye tras una EMT de baja frecuencia (<1Hz). La excitabilidad cortical también depende de la intensidad y duración de la estimulación, lo que quiere decir que a intensidades más altas habrá mayor actividad cortical y a trenes prolongados habrá cambios duraderos en la excitabilidad cortical. Una gama de síntomas de difícil tratamiento en la esquizofrenia son los síntomas negativos persistentes, donde se ha demostrado una disminución de la actividad en la CPF, por lo que la EMT se ha utilizado para revertir dicha hipoactividad y disminuir los síntomas. De forma contraria, los síntomas positivos, como las alucinaciones, se asocian con una hiperactividad de las áreas témporo-parietales y por tanto debería resultar beneficiosa la aplicación de EMT de baja frecuencia en dichas áreas. La EMT de alta frecuencia también se ha utilizado para tratar a sujetos con síntomas catatónicos prominentes y se ha logrado una mejoría con el tratamiento. El objetivo de esta revisión es que se comprendan mejor la EMT y el uso que se le puede dar para tratar diversos síntomas en la esquizofrenia.