Impacto del cambio climático en la salud / The impact of climate change on health

Climate changes evidenced by an increase in our planet's mean temperature, changes in rainfall, increased sea level and extreme weather conditions, favor air and soil contamination, ocean acidification, droughts, floods, heat waves and forest fires, which affect the health and wellbeing of exposed populations. These changes will exert negative effects on respiratory and cardiovascular systems, nutritional status, burden of infectious diseases, especially vector-borne infections, and human mental health. Moreover, environmental damages, such as loss of biodiversity, ecological collapse and deterioration of socioeconomic factors such as agricultural and fishery production, and the loss of habitable land, will impulse massive migrations. This article summarizes the impact that climate change is expected to have on respiratory, cardiovascular and infectious diseases and its repercussions on people of extreme ages. It is imperative to achieve the immediate commitment of worldwide national governments to control green-house gas emissions. The appropriate technology does exist, but political will is urgently needed to accomplish this goal.

Indicaciones inhabituales de trasplante hepático. resultados / Unusual indications for liver transplantation. results

Resumen Introducción: El trasplante hepático (TH), es una terapia establecida en el tratamiento de diversas enfermedades del hígado agudas y crónicas terminales y del carcinoma hepatocelular (CHC). Las principales indicaciones en nuestro medio son la cirrosis de diferentes etiologías, el CHC, la atresia de vías biliares en niños y la falla hepática fulminante (FHF). Menos del 10% corresponden a indicaciones inhabituales, que incluyen pacientes con una miscelánea de enfermedades entre las cuales están la enfermedad poliquística hepática (EPH), enfermedades metabólicas (Niemann-Pick, otras), el síndrome hepato/portopulmonar, metástasis de diferentes tumores, etc. Objetivo: Describir y evaluar los resultados obtenidos con el trasplante hepático en estas indicaciones. Materiales y Método: Estudio de cohorte no concurrente que incluyó los TH por indicaciones inhabituales realizados entre marzo de 1997 y diciembre de 2016. De 295 TH realizados, 34 (11,5%) fueron por estas indicaciones. Resultados: Las causas más frecuentes fueron el síndrome porto/hepatopulmonar en 11 (40,7%) pacientes y la EPH en 9 (26,5%). Las enfermedades metabólicas representaron la tercera indicación, con 5 (14,7%) casos. Siete (20,6%) pacientes eran menores de 18 años. Las complicaciones más frecuentes fueron biliares y la trombosis de arteria hepática en 6 (17,6%) y 4 (11,8%) casos respectivamente; estos últimos eran portadores de una EPH masiva. Cuatro (12,5%) pacientes requirieron retrasplante. La mortalidad a 90 días fue de 2 (5,9%) enfermos. Conclusión: El TH es una opción factible en este grupo de pacientes con resultados similares a los obtenidos en las indicaciones clásicas.

Introduction: Liver transplantation (LT) is an established therapy in the treatment of several acute and chronic end-stage liver diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The main indications worldwide are cirrhosis of different etiologies, HCC, biliary atresia in children, and fulminant hepatic failure (FHF). Less than 10% concerns unusual indications which include patients with miscellaneous diseases among which are hepatic polycystic disease (HPD), metabolic diseases (Niemann-Pick, others), portal/hepatopulmonary syndrome, metastasis of different tumors, among others. Aim: The objective of the study is to describe and asses the results obtained with liver transplantation in these indications. Materials and Method: We performed a non-concurrent cohort study that included all LT due to unusual indications between March 1997 and December 2016 in a university medical center. Of 295 TH performed, 34 (11.75%) were due to these indications. Results: The most frequent causes were the portal/hepatopulmonary syndrome in 11 (40.7%) patients and HPD in 9 (26.5%). Metabolic diseases accounted for the third indication in 5 (14.7%) cases. Seven (20.6%) patients were less than 18 years old. The most frequent complications were biliary and hepatic artery thrombosis (HAT) in 6 (17.6%) and 4 (11.8%) cases, respectively. Patients complicated by a HAT suffered a massive EPH. Four (12.5%), required retransplantation. Mortality at 90 days was 2 (5.9%). Conclusión: LT is a feasible option in this group of patients with results similar to those obtained in classic indications of LT.

Evaluación de la infección por VIH en Chile: pronunciamiento del Comité VIH de la Academia Chilena de Medicina / Evaluation of HIV epidemic in Chile: a statement of the Chilean Academy of Medicine

The Chilean Academy of Medicine convened a commission to evaluate the status of HIV epidemic and the national response to it, regarding its achievements, gaps and challenges, aiming to recommend actions to optimize assessment quality and national response. This publication summarizes the agreed upon opinion of its members. The epidemic is overwhelmingly sexually transmitted, predominant in homo/bisexual men. Vertical transmission is very low. An increasing number of new diagnoses is occurring, with relative over representation of foreign people lately. There is a legal guarantee of confidentiality, nondiscrimination and treatment for those affected, both in the private and public sector. All public health services have active HIV care units. Modern antiviral drugs and monitoring tests are also available. Despite these clear achievements, insufficient, occasionally inadequate public policies and certain rigid regulations thwart optimal effectivity and efficiency of the programs, contributing to the slow and incomplete compliance with international commitments. Shortcomings worth highlighting are: suboptimal educational and preventive programs directed to youngsters, vulnerable and general population; persistent underdiagnosis of infected population; cumbersome requirements to request and inform diagnostic tests, thus discouraging testing; excessive centralization and long latency of diagnosis confirmation and monitoring tests; incomplete epidemiologic analysis and public reporting of findings; non flexibility and slow updating of therapeutic guidelines; insufficient adaptation of care and drug delivery modalities to patients' needs; excessive administrative requirements at care centers and restrictive legislation for outcome and interventional clinical research. Recommendations to deal with these issues were proposed.

Evolución de mortalidad, abandono, traslado y retención a corto, mediano y largo plazo en pacientes con infección por VIH: Fundación Arriarán 1990-2015 / Evolution of mortality, retention and loss to follow up of HIV infected subjects followed in a special clinic

Background: The HIV epidemic reached Chile in late 1980s and as an early response, AIDS care centers were organized. Fundación Arriarán (FA) was the first center. Free antiretroviral therapy (ART) was later provided with progressive coverage and complexity over the years. Aim: To quantify evolution of mortality, retention and loss to follow up (LTFU) over 25 years according to different periods of access to ART, from no availability to full coverage with current drugs at FA center. Material and Methods: Retrospective analysis of FA database of 5,080 adults admitted between 1990 and 2014. The sample was distributed in 7 groups: A: no ART (1990-92), B: monotherapy, C: dual therapy, D: dual/triple ART, E: early triple therapy with incomplete coverage, F same as E but with complete coverage and G: contemporary ART (2008-14). Mortality, retention and LTFU were evaluated at 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10 years and at 31/12/2015. Results: Mortality varied from 40% to 2%, and 62% to 7% at 1 and 5 years, for groups A and G respectively; from 71% to 16% at 10 years for groups A and E, respectively. Retention at 5 years were 28%, 23%, 39%, 62%, 75%, 75% and 77% for groups A to G, respectively. LTFU was 10%, 19%, 15%, 17%, 9% 12% and 10% at 5 years for same groups, respectively. At 12/31/2015 22% of patients had died, 11% were LTFU, 60% were retained in care and 6% had been transferred. Conclusions: There is a marked reduction in mortality and increase in retention of HIV patients' concomitant to expanded access to modern therapy, although LTFU remains a problem.

Estudio pre-trasplante hepático: ¿qué buscar y cómo hacerlo? Si algo es positivo: ¿qué hacemos? / Liver transplant pre-study: what to search for and how to do it? what shall we do in case of positive findings?

The process of evaluation of candidate patients for liver transplantation should include the risk of infectious diseases in order to prevent the drop out of the waiting list due to infections or the occurrence of these in the post-transplant period. Cirrhotic patients in the pre-transplant stage are very ill and usually have severe infections. The most common is spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, but they can also present urinary infections and pneumonias. Mortality due to infectious causes has been reported up to 40% in patients on the transplant waiting list. The transplanted patients may have a poor immune response to vaccination, so the optimal immunization period is pre-transplant. In the post-transplant period, Gram-negative bacterial infections are one of the main complications. Invasive fungal infections and cytomegalovirus can also have a high impact on morbidity and mortality. Transplanted patients may also have mycobacterial infections in relation to a latent tuberculosis infection. In the following article we present the pre-transplant evaluations, vaccination schemes and antimicrobial prophylaxis that are used in liver transplantation.

El proceso de evaluación de pacientes candidatos para trasplante hepático debe incluir el riesgo de enfermedades infecciosas a fin de prevenir la salida de la lista por infecciones o la ocurrencia de éstas en el período post-trasplante. Los pacientes cirróticos en la etapa pre-trasplante están muy enfermos y suelen presentar infecciones graves. La más común es la peritonitis bacteriana espontánea, pero también pueden presentar infecciones urinarias y neumonías. La mortalidad por causa infecciosa se ha reportado hasta en 40% en pacientes en lista de espera de trasplante. Los pacientes trasplantados pueden tener una pobre respuesta inmune a la vacunación, por lo que el momento óptimo de inmunización es en el período pretrasplante. En el período post-trasplante las infecciones bacterianas por Gram negativos son una de las principales complicaciones. Las infecciones por hongos invasores y el citomegalovirus también pueden tener un alto impacto en morbilidad y mortalidad. Los pacientes trasplantados también pueden presentar infecciones por micobacterias en relación a una infección latente por tuberculosis. En el siguiente artículo se presentan las evaluaciones pre-trasplante, esquemas de vacunación y profilaxis antimicrobiana que se utilizan en trasplante hepático.

Controversias en el diagnóstico de enfermedad por hígado graso no alcohólico / Controversies in the diagnosis of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

There has been an increase in the prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) throughout the western world and especially in Latin America. This condition is associated with metabolic syndrome, risk of diabetes, cardiovascular risk and extrahepatic cancer. However, in patients with NAFLD, risk of mortality from diseases affecting the liver does not exceed 5 percent in contrast to 60 percent when advanced fibrosis is present. Only 10 to 20 percent of patients with NAFLD have non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), a condition that can potentially progress to fibrosis and cirrhosis. The non-invasive diagnostic tools for discriminating current patients at risk of progression to advanced fibrosis are sub-optimal. Clinical variables and routine laboratory tests help in detecting NAFLD but do not allow discrimination of NASH patients. New diagnostic tools could allow prediction of NASH such as markers of oxidative stress, inflammatory markers and markers of apoptosis. Regarding liver fibrosis biomarkers, there are indirect markers that are related to the degree of liver function and direct markers that reflect the dynamics of extracellular matrix. Imaging methods such as ultrasound-based elastography, (ARFI) and magnetic resonance elastography have shown a good correlation with the degree of fibrosis. Finally various predictor models that combine clinical and laboratory variables have a very good correlation with the degree of fibrosis. Although there is still some controversy on its clinical utility, liver biopsy still plays a role in NAFLD severity assessment for initiation of drug therapy.

Se ha registrado un aumento en la prevalencia de la enfermedad por hígado graso no alcohólico HGNA (NAFLD, por su sigla en inglés) en todo el mundo occidental y especialmente en Latinoamérica. Esta condición se relaciona con síndrome metabólico, riesgo de diabetes, riesgo cardiovascular y cáncer extrahepático. Sin embargo, en pacientes con HGNA el riesgo de mortalidad por enfermedades que afectan al hígado no supera el 5 por ciento en contraste con 60 por ciento cuando hay fibrosis avanzada. Sólo 10 a 20 por ciento de los pacientes presenta esteatohepatitis no alcohólica EHNA (NASH, por su sigla en inglés), una condición que potencialmente puede progresar a fibrosis y cirrosis. Las herramientas de diagnóstico no invasivo actuales para discriminar pacientes con riesgo de progresión a fibrosis avanzada son subóptimas. Las variables clínicas y exámenes de laboratorio habituales ayudan en la detección de HGNA,pero no permiten discriminar pacientes con EHNA. Nuevas herramientas diagnósticas podrían permitir predecir EHNA como marcadores de estrés oxidativo, marcadores de inflamación y de apoptosis. De los marcadores de fibrosis existen los indirectos que se relacionan con el grado de función hepática, marcadores directos que reflejan la dinámica de la matriz extracelular. Los métodos de imagen como la elastografía por ultrasonido (ARFI), elastografía por resonancia magnética, han demostrado una buena correlación con el grado de fibrosis. Finalmente, diversos índices que combinan variables clínicas y de laboratorio tienen una muy buena correlación con el grado de fibrosis. La biopsia aun cumple un rol a pesar de la controversia en su real necesidad para iniciar tratamiento.

Actinomicosis torácica por actinomyces odontolyticus / Pulmonary actinomycosis by actinomyces odontolyticus. A case report and review of the literature

Introduction: Actinomycosis is an infrequent infection caused by bacteria from Actinomyces genus that manifests as a chronic, suppurative and progressive disease. Thoracic actinomycosis occurs in 18 percent of the cases, and infection by Actinomyces odontolyticus is even less frequent. The clinical presentation mimics tuberculosis or neoplastic processes. Clinical case: We report the case of a 75 years old man with COPD and Diabetes Mellitus type 2. He was referred to our clinic presenting a history of chronic cough, progressive dyspnea, fever and occasional bouts of haemoptysis. Chest radiograph showed a peripherally-located parenchymal opacity in the upper right lobe with over a year of evolution that later became a cavitary mass mimicking bronchogenic neoplasm or tuberculosis. The patient underwent bronchoscopic and CT- guided biopsy that showed necrosis and inflammatory cells. In the culture of cavitary fluids grew Actinomyces odontolyticus. We concluded that it was a thoracic actinomycosis. Penicillin 20 million units per day for six weeks was given, followed by oral amoxicillin for 6 months with good clinical and radiological response. Comments: To our knowledge this is the first report in Chile of lung infection caused by Actinomyces odontolyticus. Actinomycosis is a great masquerader, in this case we made the diagnosis with a fluid culture. This microorganism must be considered in the differential diagnostic in cavitary lung diseases.

Introducción: La actinomicosis pulmonar es una infección infrecuente causada por una bacteria del género Actinomyces, se manifiesta como un proceso crónico, supurativo de curso progresivo, el compromiso torácico ocurre aproximadamente en el 18 por ciento de los casos y la infección por Actinomyces odontolyticus es aun menos frecuente. Caso clínico: Se presenta el caso de un paciente hombre de 75 años de edad con antecedentes de EPOC y Diabetes Mellitus tipo 2, que fue derivado a nuestra clínica por cursar con una reagudización infecciosa persistente caracterizada por tos productiva, disnea progresiva,fiebre y episodios reiterados de hemoptisis de escasa cuantía. En la radiografía de tórax y tomografia computada, se detectaron opacidades mal definidas en lóbulo superior derecho de un año de evolución, que posteriormente se transforman en una masa cavitada adyacente a la pared toráxica simulando una neoplasia broncogénica o tuberculosis. El paciente fue sometido a fibrobroncoscopía realizándose biopsia y punción transbronquial. Posteriormente se efectuó biopsia por punción trans-toráxica guiada radiológicamente y en una muestra de tejido de aspecto necrótico y en líquido de la cavidad enviado a cultivo se pudo aislar Actinomyces odontolyticus. Concluyéndose que se trataba de una actinomicosis tóraco-pulmonar, se procedió a tratar con penicilina sódica 20 10(6) UI/dia por seis semanas y después se programó tratamiento por seis meses con amoxicilina vía oral, con buena respuesta clínica y radiológica. Comentarios: En nuestro conocimiento esta sería la primera comunicación en Chile de una lesión pulmonar producida por Actinomyces odontolyticus. La Actinomicosis, es un gran imitador, en este caso realizamos el diagnóstico con cultivo de líquido por punción. Este microorganismo debe ser considerado en el diagnóstico diferencial de lesiones cavitarias pulmonares.

Diagnóstico bacteriológico de tuberculosis pulmonar mediante fibrobroncoscopía en pacientes con VIH / Bacteriological diagnosis of lung tuberculosis through bronchoscopy in HIV-infected patients

Tuberculosis can be lethal in HIV infected people. Lung is the organ most frequently involved, but clinical and radiological features are not typical of the disease. Diagnostic certification demands acid-fast bacillus microscopy and mycobacterial cultures on sputum. Some patients need bronchoscopy to obtain samples due to insufficient sputum. We reported a 9.1 percent diagnostic yield using bronchoscopy. Clinical suspicion before bronchoscopy had low positive predictive value of tuberculosis (10.8 percent). 47.8 percent of tuberculosis cases were not suspected before this procedure. Tuberculosis patients showed CD4 < 200 cells/mL (48.8 in average) and less use of ART (antiretroviral therapy). Cultures contributed to the diagnosis of 35 percent of tuberculosis cases but with a delay of 30 days. Induced sputum is a less costly alternative to bronchoscopy with a similar diagnostic yield.

La tuberculosis puede ser letal en pacientes infectados por VIH. El compromiso pulmonar es más frecuente en ellos y su cuadro clínico-radiológico no es típico de la enfermedad. El diagnóstico se confirma con baciloscopía y cultivo de Koch en esputo. Los pacientes sin esputo pueden requerir broncoscopía. Encontramos un rendimiento de 9,1 por ciento en diagnóstico de tuberculosis pulmonar por broncoscopía. La sospecha clínica de tuberculosis previa a broncoscopía tuvo bajo valor predictivo positivo (10,8 por ciento). 47,8 por ciento de los pacientes con Tuberculosis no fueron sospechados antes de la broncoscopía por lo que recomendamos este procedimiento en pacientes VIH con alteraciones radiológicas y síntomas respiratorios. Los casos de tuberculosis tenían CD4 < 200 células/mL (promedio 48,8) y menos uso de TAR: terapia antiretroviral. El 35 por ciento de los casos de tuberculosis se diagnosticó por cultivo (demora mínima de 30 días). El esputo inducido es una alternativa a la broncoscopía menos costosa y de similar rendimiento.

Prevalencia, factores de riesgo y manejo de la depresión en pacientes con infección por VIH: Revisión de la literatura / Depression in HIV infection: Prevalence, risk factors and management

Depression is one of the main psychiatric co-morbidities in HIV infection, presenting with a significantly higher prevalence than in the general population (around 35 percent). Its presence has been associated with poor quality of life, HIV disease progression and poor adherence to antiretroviral therapy. Although antidepressive treatment has demonstrated effectiveness on the management of depressive symptoms, improvement of clinical and laboratory parameters, and enhancement of antiretroviral adherence, depression is frequently under diagnosed and under treated in these patients. We analyzed the main international findings on depression prevalence, risk factors, con-sequences and management in people with HIV disease.

La depresión es una de las principales co-morbilidades psiquiátricas en el curso de la infección por VIH, presentándose con una prevalencia significativamente mayor que en población general (alrededor de 35 por ciento). Su presencia se ha asociado a deterioro de la calidad de vida, progresión de la enfermedad por VIH y disminución en la adherencia a la terapia anti-retroviral. El adecuado tratamiento antidepresivo ha demostrado ser efectivo en el manejo de la sintomatología depresiva, en la mejoría de parámetros clínicos y de laboratorio, y en reforzar la adherencia a la terapia anti-retroviral. A pesar de su importancia, la depresión suele ser sub-diagnosticada y sub-tratada en estos pacientes. En este trabajo se revisan los principales hallazgos internacionales sobre prevalencia, factores de riesgo, consecuencias y abordaje de la depresión en personas infectadas por VIH.

Nuevas técnicas para el estudio de la función esofágica / New techniques for the study of esophageal function

In patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GER) and esophageal neuromuscular disorders several routine techniques such as stationary esophageal manometry, cintigraphy, 24 h ambulatory pH metry has been used. These test are considered very important tools in the management of these patients. However in several cases symptoms and their mechanisms remain unexplained by tests previously mentioned. In the last years several new techniques has been introduced in the study of esophageal functions: high-resolution manometry, esophageal impedance, planimetry impedance and high frequency ultrasound. The aim was briefly review these new laboratory techniques, same of which are actually available for clinical purposes, with and increasing role in the study of patients with different esophageal disorders.

En el estudio de pacientes con reflujo gastroesofágico y trastornos neuromusculares del esófago se utilizan en forma habitual varias técnicas, entre otras, la manometría estática, la pH-metría de 24 hrs y la cintigrafía. Estas técnicas se consideran herramientas muy importantes en el manejo de estos enfermos. Sin embargo, en varios pacientes los síntomas y sus mecanismos no pueden ser adecuadamente explicados por estas técnicas. En los últimos años han surgido nuevos métodos de evaluación de la función esofágica como la manometría de alta resolución, la impedanciometría, la impedancia planimétrica y el ultrasonido intraluminal de alta frecuencia. El objetivo de esta revisión es hacer un breve análisis de estas técnicas, alguna de las cuales están disponibles para fines clínicos y en forma creciente han adquirido un rol en el estudio de enfermos con diferentes trastornos esofágicos.

Resistencia a la terapia antirretroviral en pacientes infectados con el virus VIH-1 en Chile 2002-2005 / Resistance to anti-retroviral therapy in Chilean patients with HIV-1 from 2002 to 2005

Background: Resistance limits the effectiveness of anti-retroviral therapy. In Chile, there is free access to highly active anti-retroviral therapy since 2001, but there is no information about the frequency of mutations associated to drug resistance. Aim: To determine the most common mutations associated to anti-retroviral drug resistance in Chile. Materials and Methods: Retrospective study of 710 genotype analysis coming from 568 patients aged 22 to 70 years (85 percent males) with virological failure. The analysis was performed using a commercially available sequencing kit (Trugene HIV-1 genotypic assay from Bayer S.A). Results: Mean CD4+ cell count and viral load were 154 cells/fil and 228784 RNA copies/ml, respectively. The frequency of resistance to nucleoside RT inhibitors (NRTI), non nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTI) and protease inhibitors (PI) was 71 percent, 62 percent and 22 percent, respectively. The most common mutations found were T215Y (46 percent), L10F (44 percent), Ml84V (3896), K103N (35 percent) and M41L (32 percent). Fifty five percent of mutations corresponded to the TAM (thymidine analogue mutations) group. Multiresistance was 47 percent to NNRTI, 7 percent to NRTI, 4 percent to PI and 0.7 percent to all groups. During the four years of the study, there was a significant increase in NNRTI resistance. Conclusions: These data provides important information about the epidemiology of drug resistance mutations and should help to design newHAARTstrategies.

Evolución de mortalidad y estado actual de una población infectada por VIH controlada en un centro multiprofesional / Evolution of mortality and current status of an HIV-infected population cared for at a comprehensive HIV/AIDS center in Chile

Background: Chile, a middle-income country with an HIV epidemic of moderate proportions (global infection rate 0.2%) began a government sponsored, free, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for patients from the public health system in 2001 reaching in 2004 a 100% coverage. Arriaran Foundation (AF) is the largest public AIDS care center for adults in the country. Aim: To show the present status of the AF population and the evolution of mortality. Material and Methods: Review of AF database from 1991-2004 that at 12/31/2004 had a total cumulative population of 2,259 adult patients; an active census of 1,065 patients and admitting rate 160-190 patients per years. Results: The global mortality registered was 33.4%, with decreasing annual mortality from 15.7% of its active population in 1995 to 1.9% in 2004. As of 12/31/2004, 817 patients (76.7%) were receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART); and 19.3% either did not require nor accept it. Thirty one percent received Combivir® and nevirapine, with undetectable viral load (<400 copies per ml) in 78%. Thirty percent received Combivir® and efavirenz with undetectable viral load in 80% at last count. Both regimens were used mainly as first therapy. Lopinavir/ritonavir was received by 6.3% of patients, mainly for post failure therapy and 58% had undetectable viral load. A baseline CD4 count <200 x mm3 was present in 70% of patients, 45.3% had a count below 100 and 47.8% had clinical AIDS. At the last follow up assessment, CD4 count was <200 in 36.8%, <100 in 10.6% and 200-350 in 44.9%. Conclusion: The expanded access program to ART in a public, comprehensive AIDS care center in Chile has been highly successful in reaching high undetectability (75%), reducing mortality and improving immune status despite very advanced baseline disease.

Tratamiento de la neumonía del adulto adquirida en la comunidad / Treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in adults

Appropriate antibiotic treatment reduces the duration of symptoms associated to pneumonia, the risk of complications and mortality. In most cases, it is not possible to identify the etiologic agent so antibiotic treatment is empirically prescribed. In Chile, one third of Streptococcus pneumoniae strain isolates has diminished susceptibility to penicillin; in-vitro erythromycin resistance is about 10-15% and cefotaxime resistance 2-10%. It is recommended to classify patients with community acquired pneumonia in four risk categories: Group 1: patients under 65 years without co-morbidities, in ambulatory attendance. Treatment: oral amoxicillin 1 g TID, 7 days. Group 2: patients over 65 years and / or co-morbidities, in ambulatory attendance. Treatment: oral amoxicillin/clavulanate 500/125 mg TID or 875/125 mg BID, or cefuroxime 500 mg BID, 7 days. Group 3: patients admitted to general wards with criteria of moderate severity. Treatment: ceftriaxone 1-2 g once a day or cefotaxime 1 g TID, IV, 7-10 days. Group 4: patients with severe CAP that must be interned into ICU. Treatment: ceftriaxone 2 g once a day or cefotaxime 1 g TID, IV, associated to erythromycin 500 QID, levofloxacin 500-1.000 mg once a day, or moxifloxacin 400 mg/once a day, IV, 10-14 days. In the presence of allergy to or treatment failure with betalactam drugs and/or positive serology for Mycoplasma, Chlamydia or Legionella sp it is recommended to add: erythromycin 500 mg QID, IV or oral, oral clarithromycin 500 mg BID, or oral azythromycin 500 mg once a day.

El tratamiento antimicrobiano apropiado reduce la duración de la sintomatología asociada a la neumonía, el riesgo de complicaciones y la mortalidad. En la mayoría de los casos, no es posible identificar el agente microbiológico que ocasiona la infección y por esto el tratamiento antibacteriano se prescribe en forma empírica. En Chile, un tercio de las cepas de Streptococcus pneumoniae muestra susceptibilidad disminuida a penicilina; mientras que la resistencia a eritromicina fluctúa entre 10-15% y a cefotaxima entre 2-10%. Se recomienda clasificar a los pacientes con neumonía comunitaria en cuatro categorías de riesgo: Grupo 1: pacientes bajo 65 años de edad, sin comorbilidad de manejo ambulatorio. Tratamiento: amoxicilina 1 gramo cada 8 horas vía oral durante 7 días. Grupo 2: pacientes sobre 65 años de edad y/o con comorbilidad de manejo ambulatorio. Tratamiento: amoxicilina/ácido clavulánico 500/125 mg cada 8 horas ó 875/125 mg cada 12 horas, o cefuroxima 500 mg cada 12 horas vía oral durante 7 días. Grupo 3: pacientes hospitalizados en sala de cuidados generales que tienen criterios de gravedad moderada. Tratamiento: ceftriaxona 1-2 g/día o cefotaxima 1 g cada 8 horas EV durante 7-10 días. Grupo 4: pacientes con neumonía comunitaria grave que deben ser manejados en la UCI. Tratamiento: ceftriaxona 2 g/día o cefotaxima 1 g cada 8 horas EV asociado a eritromicina 500 mg cada 6 h, levofloxacina 500-1.000 mg/día, o moxifloxacina 400 mg/día EV durante 10-14 días. En presencia de alergia o fracaso de tratamiento con agentes b-lactámicos y/o serología positiva para Mycoplasma, Chlamydia o Legionella sp se recomienda agregar: eritromicina 500 mg cada 6 h EV o VO, claritromicina 500 mg cada 12 h VO, o azitromicina 500 mg/día VO.

Tratamiento de la neumonía del adulto adquirida en la comunidad / Treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in adults

Appropriate antibiotic treatment reduces the duration of symptoms associated to pneumonia, the risk of complications and mortality. In most cases, it is not possible to identify the etiologic agent so antibiotic treatment is empirically prescribed. In Chile, one third of Streptococcus pneumoniae strain isolates has diminished susceptibility to penicillin; in-vitro erythromycin resistance is about 10-15% and cefotaxime resistance 2-10%. It is recommended to classify patients with community acquired pneumonia in four risk categories: Group 1: patients under 65 years without co-morbidities, in ambulatory attendance. Treatment: oral amoxicillin 1 g TID, 7 days. Group 2: patients over 65 years and / or co-morbidities, in ambulatory attendance. Treatment: oral amoxicillin/clavulanate 500/125 mg TID or 875/125 mg BID, or cefuroxime 500 mg BID, 7 days. Group 3: patients admitted to general wards with criteria of moderate severity. Treatment: ceftriaxone 1-2 g once a day or cefotaxime 1 g TID, IV, 7-10 days. Group 4: patients with severe CAP that must be interned into ICU. Treatment: ceftriaxone 2 g once a day or cefotaxime 1 g TID, IV, associated to erythromycin 500 QID, levofloxacin 500-1.000 mg once a day, or moxifloxacin 400 mg/once a day, IV, 10-14 days. In the presence of allergy to or treatment failure with betalactam drugs and/or positive serology for Mycoplasma, Chlamydia or Legionella sp it is recommended to add: erythromycin 500 mg QID, IV or oral, oral clarithromycin 500 mg BID, or oral azythromycin 500 mg once a day...

El tratamiento antimicrobiano apropiado reduce la duración de la sintomatología asociada a la neumonía, el riesgo de complicaciones y la mortalidad. En la mayoría de los casos, no es posible identificar el agente microbiológico que ocasiona la infección y por esto el tratamiento antibacteriano se prescribe en forma empírica. En Chile, un tercio de las cepas de Streptococcus pneumoniae muestra susceptibilidad disminuida a penicilina; mientras que la resistencia a eritromicina fluctúa entre 10-15% y a cefotaxima entre 2-10%. Se recomienda clasificar a los pacientes con neumonía adquirida en la comunidad en cuatro categorías de riesgo: Grupo 1: pacientes bajo 65 años de edad, sin comorbilidad de manejo ambulatorio. Tratamiento: amoxicilina 1 gramo cada 8 horas vía oral durante 7 días. Grupo 2: pacientes sobre 65 años de edad y/o con comorbilidad de manejo ambulatorio. Tratamiento: amoxicilina/ácido clavulánico 500/125 mg cada 8 horas ó 875/125 mg cada 12 horas, o cefuroxima 500 mg cada 12 horas vía oral durante 7 días. Grupo 3: pacientes hospitalizados en sala de cuidados generales que tienen criterios de gravedad moderada. Tratamiento: ceftriaxona 1-2 g/día o cefotaxima 1 g cada 8 horas EV durante 7-10 días. Grupo 4: pacientes con neumonía grave adquirida en la comunidad que deben ser manejados en la UCI. Tratamiento: ceftriaxona 2 g/día o cefotaxima 1 g cada 8 horas EV asociado a eritromicina 500 mg cada 6 h, levofloxacina 500-1.000 mg/día, o moxifloxacina 400 mg/día EV durante 10-14 días. En presencia de alergia o fracaso de tratamiento con agentes b-lactámicos y/o serología positiva para Mycoplasma, Chlamydia o Legionella sp se recomienda agregar: eritromicina 500 mg cada 6 h EV o VO, claritromicina 500 mg cada 12 h VO, o azitromicina 500 mg/día VO

Uso y abuso de antibióticos: momento de su evaluación, más allá del ser humano / Use and misuse of antibiotics: time to evaluate it beyond humans

Antibiotics, once called the ®wonder drugs¼ might be loosing their magic through development and dissemination of bacterial resistance. We are very responsible for that by way of inappropriate and excessive use of them. Although we have not created the problem we have promoted, accelerated and amplified it. So we used to think. Now we can share the blame: massive use in animal feed, seems to be contributing a great deal to the same effect, and they are not even used to treat infections, but to promote growth and weight gain. Dubious purpose, since same effects can be achieved with better and more hygienic feeding practices. Equal or larger amounts of antibiotics are thought to be used for this purpose than for human health. Resistance in animal flora and transmission to humans has been inevitable. In this issue, F Cabello reports this practice in Chilean aquaculture: greater amounts than in other countries and a wider range of antimicrobials are used here, some sharing chemical and spectrum properties with those for human use, some slowly biodegradable. This situation may have a great impact in bacterial resistance locally, along with other untoward consequences of exposing unnecessarily salmons, humans and the environment to bioactive products. The time to openly discuss the practice, probably quite unknown to the general public, and perhaps to some authorities, has come (Rev Méd Chile 2004, 132: 909-10).

Consideraciones clínico-epidemiológicas en relación a la etiología de las endocarditis infecciosas / Clinic-epidemiologycal considerations related with the infectious endocarditis etiology

La endocarditis infecciosa (EI) persiste como patología frecuente y trascendente. Ha cambiado en relación a la endocarditis subaguda tradicional de antaño: otros tipos de huéspedes, otros factores de riesgo y patologías subyacentes y modificaciones en la distribución etiológica y resistencia de sus agentes causales. Siguen predominando largamente los agentes bacterianos clásicos, aunque se están reconociendo agentes atípicos dados los progresos del diagnóstico microbiológico, serológico y molecular. Desde un punto de vista práctico es útil diferenciar 4 tipos de endocarditis, con distintas manifestaciones, criterios diagnósticos comunes y, en particular, diferente distribución etiológica, que ayuda a buscar con dedicación preferencial los agentes más característicos o, en caso de fallar en el diagnóstico etiológico orientar y dirigir la terapia empírica. Se distingue la clásica EI de paciente valvulópata previo de adquisición extrahospitalaria en donde predomina Streptococcus spp largamente seguido de S aureus y Enterococcus sp. Está luego la EI del paciente con drogadicción endovenosa, excepcional en Chile, cuya etiología mayoritaria es S aureus y en menos grado bacilos Gram negativos (BGN) y menos aún hongos. EI en valvula protésica con etiología variable de acuerdo al momento de ocurrencia, primando S aureus, S coagulasa negativo (SCN), BGN y hongo en la fase precoz, y una distribución más clásica en los casos tardíos sin nunca perder importancia S aureus y SCN. Finalmente están las EI nosocomiales de pacientes con múltiples patologías de base, no siempre cardíacas que hacen EI como consecuencia de bacteremias nosocomiales cuya etiología representa la distribución de éstas, pero predominando S aureus, SCN y BGN.