Shapes of pathology

ABSTRACT: The shape is one of the key features of a lesion and a pathologist must be able to identify and interpret these forms in the context of any gross and microscopic changes. One of the principles of adult learning is to engage the learner with previously understood information. If, when presenting material that is new, a connection with something the student already has familiarity with, the learning process is accelerated. As the learners are already familiar with shapes they have encountered throughout their pre-pathology learning, these can be used to hasten the incorporation and understanding of lesions. This paper describes various shapes that are used in describing lesions in veterinary pathology.

RESUMO: A forma é uma das principais características de uma lesão. Um patologista deve ser capaz de identificar e interpretar essas formas no contexto de quaisquer alterações macroscópicas ou microscópicas. Um dos princípios da aprendizagem de adultos é envolver o aluno com informações previamente compreendidas. Se, ao apresentar um material novo, se estabelece uma conexão com algo que o aluno já conhece, o processo de aprendizagem torna-se mais rápido e eficiente. Como os alunos já estão familiarizados com as formas que encontraram ao longo de sua aprendizagem pré-patologia, elas podem ser usadas para acelerar a incorporação e a compreensão das lesões. Este artigo descreve várias formas que são usadas na descrição de lesões em patologia veterinária.

Shapes of pathology / As formas da patologia

The shape is one of the key features of a lesion and a pathologist must be able to identify and interpret these forms in the context of any gross and microscopic changes. One of the principles of adult learning is to engage the learner with previously understood information. If, when presenting material that is new, a connection with something the student already has familiarity with, the learning process is accelerated. As the learners are already familiar with shapes they have encountered throughout their pre-pathology learning, these can be used to hasten the incorporation and understanding of lesions. This paper describes various shapes that are used in describing lesions in veterinary pathology.(AU)

A forma é uma das principais características de uma lesão. Um patologista deve ser capaz de identificar e interpretar essas formas no contexto de quaisquer alterações macroscópicas ou microscópicas. Um dos princípios da aprendizagem de adultos é envolver o aluno com informações previamente compreendidas. Se, ao apresentar um material novo, se estabelece uma conexão com algo que o aluno já conhece, o processo de aprendizagem torna-se mais rápido e eficiente. Como os alunos já estão familiarizados com as formas que encontraram ao longo de sua aprendizagem pré-patologia, elas podem ser usadas para acelerar a incorporação e a compreensão das lesões. Este artigo descreve várias formas que são usadas na descrição de lesões em patologia veterinária.(AU)

¿Torbellino de ideas o razonamiento mediante analogías? Evaluación de la eficacia de dos modos de pensamiento para promover la creatividad / A brainstorming or analogical thinking? Evaluation of the effectiveness of two ways of thinking to promote creativity

Una pregunta extendida en el campo de la creatividad es qué tipo de pensamiento se debiera fomentar en las personas para que sean más creativas. Se llevó adelante un experimento en el que un grupo de participantes se enfrentó a un problema de tipo mal definido y debió resolverlo aplicando la técnica de creatividad conocida como torbellino de ideas, que implica el uso de un pensamiento de tipo extraordinario. Otro grupo debió resolver el problema transfiriendo una solución conocida dada a un problema análogo, lo que supone un modo ordinario de pensamiento. La creatividad de las soluciones propuestas fue evaluada por jueces expertos. El análisis de datos no arrojó diferencias entre las condiciones, por lo que ambos modos de trabajo resultaron igualmente efectivos para promover la creatividad. Se discuten las implicancias de los resultados obtenidos para las teorías que buscan explicar el pensamiento creativo y las posibles formas de fomentarlo. (AU)

An overextended question in the field of creativity is which kind of thinking should be encouraged for people to be more creative. An experiment was conducted in which one group of participants had to solve an ill-defined problem by applying a creativity technique known as brainstorming, which implies the use of extraordinary thinking. A second group had to solve the problem by transferring a known solution from an analogous problem, which implies the use of ordinary thinking processes. Expert judges rated the creativity of solutions proposed by participants for the given problem. Data analysis showed that there were no differences between both experimental conditions. Thus, both working modalities were shown to be equally effective to promote creativity. Implications of these findings for the existing theories on creative thinking are discussed. (AU)

El papel de la similitud de objetos en el pensamiento analógico: el enfoque de la asignación categorial / The role of object similarities on analogical thinking: the category assignment approach

El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar el efecto que las similitudes de objeto tienen sobre las evaluaciones de calidad de una analogía. Los participantes divididos en dos grupos puntuaron en qué medida consideraban que ciertos pares de hechos eran análogos. Mientras que al primer grupo se les resaltó la relación implicada en las situaciones a comparar, al segundo se les enmarcó dicha comparación en una categoría relacional de esquema. Las evaluaciones de calidad del primer grupo fueron mayores cuando las situaciones comparadas involucraban objetos taxonómicamente similares, efecto que no fue hallado en el segundo grupo. En este grupo, lo que afectó la evaluación de las analogías fueron las similitudes de objeto relacionadas con una dimensión de la categoría esquemática que enmarcaba la comparación. Los resultados se interpretan desde un enfoque alternativo sobre el razonamiento analógico ­el enfoque de la asignación categorial. Se discuten implicaciones para este campo disciplinar. (AU)

The present study was aimed at assessing the effect of object similarities in evaluations of the quality of analogies. Two groups of participants received pairs of situations with the task of assessing the extent to which they considered them to be analogous. Whereas in the first group the relation involved in the situations to be compared was highlighted, in the second group comparisons were framed by a schema-governed category. Quality evaluations of the first group were higher when the compared situations involved taxonomically similar objects, but no such effect was found within the second group. In this group, the evaluations of the quality of analogies were affected by object similarities related to central dimensions of the framing schema-governed category. We explain these findings within an alternative perspective on analogical reasoning­ the category assignment approach. Implications for this field of research are discussed.(AU)

Reforçamento operante e seleção natural: a analogia inútil / Operant reinforcement and natural selection: the useless analogy

Atualmente é bastante comum, nas discussões teóricas sobre Análise do Comportamento, mencionar a"seleção pelas consequências" como um modo causal específico e como um esquema integrador da disciplina com a biologia evolutiva. Contudo, falar de "seleção" no contexto do reforçamento operante constitui claramente um discurso analógico ou metafórico. Esta nota teórica tem três objetivos principais:primeiro, clarificar as condições nas quais uma analogia desta natureza pode ser aceita ou não; segundo,resumir e simplificar os argumentos de Tonneau e Sokolowski (2000, 2001 ) contrários à analogia entre reforçamento operante e seleção natural; e finalmente, examinar se desenvolvimentos recentes na disciplina refutaram as conclusões negativas destes autores

Hacia una epistemología evolutiva extendida: la retroalimentación entre variación y selección / Toward an Extended Evolutionary Epistemology: Feedback Between Variation and Selection

Este artículo se sitúa en la perspectiva de la naturalización del conocimiento científico, toda vez que es un intento por caracterizar y describir la evolución del conocimiento a partir de nociones de la biología. El objetivo principal es responder si es posible sostener la analogía que propone la epistemología evolutiva (EE): que la evolución del conocimiento científico (ECC) es similar a la evolución orgánica (EO). La pregunta surge tras las críticas que han atacado el núcleo de la analogía. La respuesta es que la analogía sí se sostiene si se tienen en cuenta las relaciones de retroalimentación, y que es posible proponer a la luz de la síntesis extendida (SE), una teoría posterior que complementa la síntesis moderna (SM). Así, este trabajo comienza con una descripción del estado de la "epistemología evolutiva", prosigue señalando por qué la síntesis moderna, que sirvió de base para su formulación, no es suficiente para fundamentar la epistemología evolutiva y finaliza proponiendo que es pertinente una modificación que puede describirse como "epistemología evolutiva extendida".

This paper is situated from naturalized epistemology perspective. It is an attempt to describe the evolution of knowledge using the theoretical structure of the evolution of species. The main objective of this work is to address whether is it possible to maintain the analogy in evolutionary epistemology and which aspects of the evolution of knowledge are similar to organic evolution? This question arises after some critics against the nucleus of its formulation. The analysis presented in this work suggests that the evolution of the knowledge can be understand through an framework analogous to that of the theory of organic evolution. For this, is necessary to take into account novel feedbacks relations between variation and selection, which are part of the Extended Synthesis theory. In such way, this paper begins with an introduction to evolutionary epistemology. After that, it shows why modern synthesis theory is not enough to maintain this kind of epistemology. It ended with the idea of an extended evolutionary epistemology.

Analogías de figuras: Teoría y construcción de ítemes / Figural analogies: Theory and construction of items

Se describen las bases conceptuales y operacionales de los tests de resolución de problemas por analogía estableciendo énfasis en las analogías de figuras. Se expone brevemente la importancia del estudio de dicho constructo hipotético para el abordaje de la capacidad intelectual. Se citan lineamientos teóricos sobre el mismo y se describen las características y mecanismos cognitivos fundamentales implicados en la resolución de matrices de figuras. En cuanto a este último punto, se aborda la comprensión de las relaciones y correlatos entre relaciones figurales tomando el modelo de proporción A:B::C:D propio de la tradición psicométrica desde principios del Siglo XX. Se establecen además vínculos conceptuales con aportes de autores pertenecientes a la vertiente cognitiva de estudio del razonamiento analógico y con escuelas de la Psicología General. Se pretende brindar un marco ideal para la creación de matrices figurales de 2 x 2 que midan el constructo. Con el objetivo de evitar sesgos en la medición, se plantean seis sugerencias básicas puestas al servicio tanto de la confección de estos reactivos, como de su administración. Dichas sugerencias son las siguientes: (1) considerar el doble camino de resolución de la matriz, (2) desarrollar una estrategia unívoca de resolución, (3) tomar en cuenta n estrategias para generar nk ítemes, (4) crear ítemes a ser resueltos únicamente por la vía del razonamiento analógico, (5) consideraciones en cuanto a las opciones de respuesta y (6) consideraciones referidas a la administración.

This paper describes the conceptual and operational bases of analogical problem - solving tests, placing emphasis on figural analogies. The importance of the study of such a hypothetical construct to the understanding of intellectual capacity is briefly outlined. The significance of the construct in relation to mental development and individual maturation from childhood to adulthood is also explained in a concise way. Theoretical considerations about analogical reasoning are quoted and the fundamental characteristics and cognitive mechanisms involved in the resolution of figural matrix items are described. In this respect, the nature of relations and correlations between relations of figures is elucidated taking into account the A:B::C:D proportional model which has been researched by psychometrists since the beginning of the 20th Century. This model suggests the existence of two pairs of relations between elements, where element A is to element B as element C is to a missing element D (Figure 2). Items created on the basis of this structure usually contain given answers, only one of which is correct. On the other hand, linkages are established with contributions from experts defending the cognitive perspective of the study of analogical reasoning, and also with General Psychology schools like Gestalt and Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence. Finally, an ideal framework for the creation of 2 x 2 figural matrices that can measure analogical reasoning is intended to be provided. With the purpose of reducing item bias, six essential suggestions for the preparation and administration of items are offered. These suggestions are: (1) the constructor should consider the double resolution pathway of a proportional analogy (horizontal as well as vertical, i.e. A:B::C:D and A:C::B:D). In doing so, the probability of generating non-controlled rules of analogical relation to one of these pathways will be reduced. These accidental rules correspond to resolution logics different from those chosen by the designer, therefore affecting item manipulation and control. (2) Strongly related to the latter, given that each rule or combination of rules creates one different resolution strategy, each proportional analogy item should incorporate only one of these strategies to be applied horizontally as well as vertically. (3) Given that one or more rules may be used for the same item, a few rules are more than enough to prepare a large group of strategies and, therefore, a large item bank. Also, it is possible to take into account n strategies to produce nk items, being k the number of items apparently different from each other that nevertheless share the same resolution strategy. (4) Items that can be solved by applying ways of reasoning different from those of the proportional analogies should not be constructed. For instance, the designer should not allow superficial comparisons among some matching attributes of the item as a problem solving method, since this procedure does not require the consideration of the whole matrix structure (Gestalt's) which should serve as a basis for the analogical reasoning task. Therefore, pairing analogies should be rejected as they allow for this kind of resolution pathways (e.g. matching circle C with circle D2 in the 4th item of Figure 2, without taking into account the other matrix figures). (5) Alternative responses should contain one clearly correct answer to be discovered by using only analogical reasoning; wrong answers should not replace the correct one just because they are more appropriate considering alternative non-pretended ways of reasoning; all alternatives should share similarities and be distributed on a random basis. (6) The bias arising from administration conditions should be taken into account, including the possible verbal contamination during completion of this non-verbal test.

Aquisição inicial do léxico verbal e aproximações semânticas em português / Early acquisition of the verbal lexicon and semantic approximations in Portuguese

O raciocínio analógico, que permite relacionar conceitos, possibilita a construção do sistema conceitual. Na fase inicial de aquisição do léxico, notadamente entre 2 e 4 anos de idade, observam-se produções lingüísticas decorrentes do raciocínio analógico, às vezes designadas metáforas. Segundo Duvignau (2002, 2003), tais emissões resultam da aproximação semântica por analogia, mecanismo que permite aproximar conceitos mais ou menos distantes do léxico disponível. O presente estudo dimensiona a importância das aproximações semânticas verbais para o desenvolvimento lexical inicial de crianças monolíngües da língua portuguesa e estuda o recurso aos itens genéricos versus específicos. Participaram deste estudo 80 crianças com idades entre 2 e 4 anos e 75 estudantes universitários monolíngües, que responderam à Tarefa de Nomeação e Reformulação de Ações. Os resultados permitiram concluir que a aproximação semântica por analogia é uma estratégia lingüística fundamental para o desenvolvimento do léxico e revela a flexibilidade cognitiva presente no desenvolvimento típico.

The analogical reasoning that allows relating concepts, permits the construction of the conceptual system. In the early phase of lexicon acquisition, mainly between 2 and 4 years of age, linguistic productions are observed resulting from the analogical reasoning, sometimes named metaphors. According to Duvignau (2002, 2003), these emissions result from the semantic approximation by analogy, a mechanism that allows approaching concepts more or less distant from the available lexicon. This study dimensions the importance of verbal semantic approximations for the early lexical development of monolingual children of the Portuguese language and studies the resource to generic versus specific items. Eighty monolingual children between 2 and 4 years old and 75 undergraduate students took part of this study, answering the Actions Naming and Reformulation Tasks. The results conclude that the semantic approximation by analogy is a fundamental linguistic strategy for lexicon development and reveals the cognitive flexibility which is present in typical development.

Freud, Jung e o Homem dos Lobos: percalços da psicanálise aplicada / Freud, Jung and the Wolfman: benefits of applied psychoanalysis

Pretende-se examinar o papel da analogia no pensamento freudiano, através de um período fértil e tumultuado do movimento psicanalítico, marcado pela intensificação das divergências entre Freud e seu dileto (Jung), e também pelo crescimento do movimento da psicanálise aplicada entre Freud e seus discípulos e pelo trabalho analítico daquele que é, talvez, o mais importante caso clínico escrito por Freud: o caso do Homem dos Lobos. Este período marca um imenso campo de debates clínicos e teóricos, entre os quais se inclui, sem dúvida, o problema da analogia na teoria e na clínica psicanalíticas.

This article intends to examine the role of analogy in the Freudian thought. With this in mind we will visit a very hectic and productive period in the psychoanalytical movement. This period was marked by the divergences between Freud and Jung, by the expansion of the applied psychoanalytical movement between Freud and his disciples, and by the analytical work of the Wolfman (which might be considered Freud's most important case). This period marks a huge field of clinical and theoretical debates, among which the problem of analogy in theory and in clinical psychoanalysis is undoubtedly included.

La analogía del ordenador y la constitución de las Ciencias Cognitivas / Computer analogy and cognitive sciences constitution

En este trabajo se desarrolla la problemática vincu-lada con la analogía del ordenador y sus implicancias. Se propone, siguiendo el modelo de algunos autores, un criterio tentativo para caracterizar a las ciencias cognitivas. También se analizan las cuestiones del sentido y alcance de la analo-gía, para luego exponer, sobre la base de ese análisis, una clasificación de las ciencias cognitivas, atendiendo a sus supuestos teóricos, sus objetivos y su metodología.