¿Cómo nos vemos? ¿Cómo los vemos? los estereotipos en el conflicto boliviano-chileno

Los estereotipos son una de las áreas de investigación más grandes y duraderas en psicología social, muchos de los procesos mediante los cuales se forman, mantienen y aplican, ahora estan bien comprendidos. El presente estudio utiliza los avances obtenidos estos últimos años en esta área y, busca a partir de la aparición periódica de conflictos entre Bolivia y Chile, determinar los auto y hetero estereotipos (¿cómo nos vemos? y ¿cómo los vemos?) entre ambas regiones. La investigación contó con una muestra binacional de estudiantes universitarios de la frontera entre ambas naciones (La Paz-Bolivia y Arica-Chile), los resultados señalan la importancia de los estereotipos en los conflictos internacionales y su posible impacto en los procesos de negociación.

Stereotypes are one of the largest and most enduring research areas in social psychology, many of the processes by which stereotypes are formed, maintained and applied are now well understood. The present study uses the advances obtained in recent years in this area and starting from the periodic appearance of conflicts between Bolivia and Chile, seeks to determine the self and hetero stereotypes (how do we see ourselves and how do we see them?), between both regions. The research had a binational sample of university students from the border between both nations (La Paz-Bolivia and Arica-Chile), the results indicate the importance of stereotypes in international conflicts and their possible impact on the negotiation processes.

Os estereótipos são uma das maiores e mais duráveis áreas de pesquisa em psicologia social, muitos dos processos pelos quais eles são formados, mantidos e aplicados agora são bem compreendidos. O presente estudo utiliza os avanços obtidos nos últimos anos nesta área e, a partir da aparição periódica de conflitos entre Bolívia e Chile, procura determinar os eu e os hetero estereótipos (como nos vemos e como os vemos?), entre ambas as regiões. A pesquisa teve uma amostra binacional de estudantes universitários da fronteira entre as duas nações (La Paz-Bolívia e Arica-Chile), os resultados indicam a importância dos estereótipos nos conflitos internacionais e seu possível impacto nos processos de negociação.

Reliability and capability as self-stereotypical contents of national identity in Peru / Confiabilidade e capacidade como conteúdos autoestereótipos da identidade nacional no Peru / Confiabilidad y capacidad como contenidos auto-estereótipos de la identidad nacional en el Perú / Fiabilité et capacité comme contenu du stéréotype de soi de l'identité nationale au Pérou

Three studies using urban samples from Lima-Peru (n1 = 200, n2 = 276, n3 = 211) confirm that the degree of identification with Peru, Peruvian collective self-esteem and Peruvian national self-stereotyping positive contents correlated. Multiple regressions and a meta-analysis of the three studies show that national identification is more strongly related to collective self-esteem than to positive and negative self-stereotypes. Results are discussed and confirm the prevalence of self-esteem maintenance and enhancement as the National Identity main motive. Reliability and Capability self-stereotypes are less important in National identity constitution than self-esteem, but these self-stereotypes have an indirect influence in national identification enhancing collective self-esteem. Identification with Peru and Peruvian collective self-esteem correlate to personal self-esteem, confirming the association between collective identity components and well being. Results also discard the hypothesis of a dominant negative national identity in Peru and support the existence of a positive profile, with an important sub-group showing ambivalent national identity.

Três estudos com mostras urbanas de níveis socioeconômicos meios de Lima-Peru (n1 = 200, n2 = 276, n3 = 211) mostram que o grau de identificação com o Peru, a autoestima coletiva nacional e os conteúdos autoestereótipos estão positivamente correlacionados entre eles. Um Analise de Regressão linear múltipla e uma síntese meta-analítica dos três estudos apresentados mostram que o grau de identificação com o Peru está mais fortemente relacionado à autoestima coletiva que aos autoestereótipos positivos e negativos sobre o endo-grupo nacional. Os resultados confirmam a prevalência da manutenção e fortalecimento da autoestima como um aspeto central da identidade nacional. Os conteúdos autoestereótipos de confiabilidade e capacidade têm uma influência indireta sobre o grau de identificação nacional mediado pela autoestima coletiva. A identificação com o Peru ea autoestima coletiva apresentam uma correlação direta com a autoestima pessoal, o que confirma a relação entre a identidade coletiva e bem-estar. Os resultados não suportam a hipótese de uma identidade nacional negativa, eles mostram a existência de um segmento de participantes com uma identificação positiva e um grupo de participantes com uma visão ambivalente dos peruanos.

Tres estudios con muestras urbanas de niveles socio-económicos medios de Lima-Perú (n1 = 200, n2 = 276, n3 = 211) muestran que el grado de identificación con el Perú, la autoestima colectiva peruana y los contenidos auto-estereótipos nacionales se correlacionan positivamente entre sí. Regresiones lineales multiples y una síntesis meta-analítica de los tres estudios referidos, muestran que el grado de identifcación con el Perú está más fuertemente relacionada con la autoestima colectiva que con los auto-estereótipos positivos y negativos sobre el endogrupo nacional. Los resultados confirman la prevalencia del mantenimiento y reforzamiento de la auto-estima como un motivo central de la identidad nacional. Los contenidos auto-estereótipos de confiabilidad y capacidad tienen una influencia indirecta en el grado de identificación nacional a través de la auto-estima colectiva. La identificación con el Perú y la auto-estima colectiva correlacionan directamente con la auto-estima personal, confirmando la asociación entre la identidad colectiva y el bienestar. Los resultados no apoyan la hipótesis de una identidad nacional negativa, pues muestran la existencia de un segmento de participantes con una identificación positiva y de un grupo de participantes con una vision ambivalente de la peruanidad.

Trois études avec des échantillons urbaines de niveaux socio-économiques moyens de Lima-Pérou ( n1 = 200, n2 = 276, n3 = 211 ) montrent que le degré d'identification avec le Pérou, l'estime de soi collective péruvienne ainsi que les contenus du stéréotype de soi nationale sont corrélés positivement entre soi. Des régressions linéaires multiples et une synthèse métaanalytique des trois études montrent que le degré d'indentification avec le Pérou est plus fortement lié à l'estime de soi collective qu'aux stéréotypes de soi positifs et négatifs sur l'endogroupe national. Les résultats confirment la prévalence du maintien et du renforcement de l'estime de soi comme une motivation centrale de l'identité nationale. Les contenus du stéréotype de soi de fiabilité et de capacité ont une influence indirecte sur le niveau d'indentification nationale à travers l'estime de soi collective. L'identification avec le Pérou et l'estime de soi collective sont directement corrélés avec l'estime de soi personnelle, confirmant ainsi le lien entre identité collective et bien-être. Les résultats ne confirment cependant pas l'hypothèse d'une identité nationale négative, mais dévoilent plutôt l'existence d'un segment de participants avec identification positive et un groupe de participants avec une vision ambivalente de ce que ce que signifie être péruvien.

Identidad nacional y su relación con la dominancia social y la tolerancia a la transgresión en residentes de Buenos Aires (Argentina) / National identity and its relationship with social dominance and tolerance transgression in Buenos Aires' residents (Argentina)

El objetivo del estudio que se informa fue describir y analizar los componentes de la identidad nacional argentina y su relación con la orientación de la dominancia social (ODS) y la tolerancia a la transgresión normativa. Para tal fin, se realizaron encuestas a 170 sujetos que residían en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires y el Conurbano Bonaerense (República Argentina). Los resultados evidencian un grado de identificación medio-alto con la categoría social argentino, a la vez que muestran una autoestima colectiva medio-alta. Los atributos autoestereotípicos que conforman la identidad nacional comprenden tres dimensiones: argentino positivo, argentino negativo y argentino avivado. Esta última dimensión fue la que presentó mayor consenso entre los participantes, lo que sugiere que la viveza es percibida como una interface entre lo negativo y lo positivo por sus características adaptativas y funcionales. Los resultados muestran además que la ODS se relaciona inversamente con los componentes positivos, y directamente con los componentes negativos de la identidad nacional, lo que lleva a pensar que el ser argentino no necesariamente se vincula con el estatus o poder en personas dominantes. Finalmente, en relación con la tolerancia a la transgresión, los niveles de acuerdo con la misma son bajos en la muestra. Las caracterizaciones del argentino negativo y argentino avivado se vinculan con la tolerancia hacia ciertos comportamientos transgresores, especialmente con aquellos considerados menos graves y que no perjudican directamente a terceros.

From early beginnings of the last century, the stereotypes and categorizations about the Argentineans where predominantly negative, both for foreigners as for Argentineans themselves (D’adamo & García Beaudoux, 1994). This lack of a positive nationalism has been related to the lack of adherence to the norm and corruption, as well as to the bias towards the European countries shown by the Argentinean society and its members. This negative social self-concept among Argentineans is not unique in the region, in fact, a study carried out in the 90’s revealed that most of Latin American countries had negative national identities (Salazar, J. M. & Salazar, M. A., 1998). However, more recent studies carried out in countries such as Peru or Mexico suggest that there might be a shift in some aspects of their national identities, from a mainly negative one to a more ambivalent one, with some positive and some negative aspects. Some of these studies also evidenced certain relations between the national identity and other psychosocial variables such as the social dominance orientation (SDO) and the political ideology. Both high levels of SDO and a right wing political ideology had a negative impact on the different components of the national identity. These results may enlighten the study of the national identity in Argentina, that’s why the aim of this study was to describe and analyze some components of the Argentinean national identity and their relationship to SDO and tolerance towards transgressive behaviors. To this end, a survey with 170 residents in Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires and its surroundings was carried out. Results showed middle-high levels of identification and collective self-esteem related to the Argentinean social category. The national self-stereotypes that conform Argentinean identity were gathered in three dimensions: Positive argentine, Negative argentine, and Crafty argentine. The last dimension was the most consensual among participants, suggesting that craftiness is perceived as an interface between the negative and positive self-stereotype dimensions, because of its functionality and adaptability characteristics. The results also showed that the SDO was inversely related to the positive dimension, and directly related to the negative dimension of national identity, which suggests that the Argentine social category is not linked to status or power in dominant people. Finally, scores of tolerance toward normative transgression were low in the sample. However, negative argentine and crafty argentine dimensions were more tolerant toward transgressor behaviors that could be considered less serious and not harmful to others. The results confirm the negative relation between the SDO and the positive national identity, although the causes of this relation are yet to be studied. The research also suggests that there might be a shift in some of the components and expressions of the national identity. As well as in other countries of Latin America, this shift is characterized for its ambivalence between some positive aspects and other negative ones. Perhaps this ambivalence is best characterized by the craftiness, where the negative aspects of norm transgression and individualism meet the positive aspects of social warmth, adaptability and creativity. As for further investigations, it’s important to study how the different national identities interact with specific scenarios, and how this interaction has an impact on the individual behavior. Altogether, this kind of research helps to understand the national identity more deeply, and therefore, enlighten us to make a positive change in order to develop a healthy social identity, based on mutual trust and respect.