Freud e a hermenêutica de Darwin / Freud and Darwin's hermeneutics / Freud et l'herméneutique de Darwin / Freud y la hermenéutica de Darwin

Este artigo pretende mostrar em que medida Darwin inaugurou uma hermenêutica e como ela pautou a posição epistemológica de Freud. Para tanto, busca-se afastar, antes de mais nada, certa concepção corrente, mesmo entre biólogos, segundo a qual o darwinismo se resumiria à ideia da seleção natural. Visto que boa parte dos leitores de psicanálise e psicopatologia desconhecem essa espécie de discussão, o artigo procura dar atenção especial a ela. Em seguida, busca-se mostrar como Freud insere sua contribuição à ciência na esteira da de Darwin. Ambos revelaram - cada um à sua maneira e com propósitos distintos - ser possível uma investigação materialista da psique amparada numa hermenêutica naturalista. Por fim, retoma-se a crítica feita pela filosofia da psicanálise às interpretações de Habermas e Ricoeur com o intuito de ressaltar, com a ajuda de aspectos enfatizados por Lacan, o quanto as posições teórica e clínica vinculadas a tais interpretações se distanciam das posições de Freud.

This article analyzes to what extent Darwin created a hermeneutics and how this hermeneutics guided Freud's epistemological position. For this purpose, it first moves away from a certain widespread conception, even among biologists, according to which Darwinism could be reduced to the idea of natural selection. Since most readers of psychoanalysis and psychopathology ignore this type of discussion, the article seeks to give special attention to it. Then, it shows how Freud inserts his contribution to science following that of Darwin. Both revealed - each in his own way and with different purposes - that a materialistic investigation of the psyche based on a naturalistic hermeneutic is possible. Finally, it resumes the critiques made by the philosophy of psychoanalysis to Habermas and Ricoeur's interpretations to highlight, with the help of aspects emphasized by Lacan, how the theoretical and clinical positions linked to such interpretations differ from Freud's proposals.

Cet article analyse dans quelle mesure Darwin a créé une herméneutique et comment celle-ci a orienté la position épistémologique de Freud. Pour ce faire, on s'éloigne d'une certaine conception répandue, même chez les biologistes, selon laquelle le darwinisme pourrait être réduit à l'idée de sélection naturelle. Comme la plupart des lecteurs de psychanalyse et de psychopathologie ignorent ce genre de discussion, l'article cherche à lui accorder une attention particulière. Ensuite, on montre comment Freud insère sa contribution à la science dans le sillage de celle de Darwin. Tous deux ont révélé - chacun à sa manière et avec des objectifs différents - qu'une investigation matérialiste de la psyché basée sur une herméneutique naturaliste est possible. Enfin, on reprend les critiques faites par la philosophie de la psychanalyse aux interprétations de Habermas et de Ricœur pour mettre en évidence, à l'aide des aspects soulignés par Lacan, comment les positions théoriques et cliniques liées à ces interprétations diffèrent des positions de Freud.

Este artículo pretende mostrar hasta qué punto Darwin inauguró una hermenéutica y cómo orientó la perspectiva epistemológica de Freud. Para ello, primero se aleja de la concepción difundida, incluso entre los biólogos, de que el darwinismo se resumiría a la idea de selección natural. Dado que la mayoría de los lectores de psicoanálisis y psicopatología desconocen este tipo de discusión, este artículo pretende prestarle especial atención. A continuación, se busca mostrar cómo Freud inserta su contribución a la ciencia en la estela de la de Darwin. Ambos revelaron - cada cual a su manera y con diferentes propósitos - que es posible una investigación materialista de la psique apoyada en una hermenéutica naturalista. Por último, se retoma la crítica a las interpretaciones de Habermas y Ricoeur realizada por la filosofía del psicoanálisis para poner de manifiesto, con la ayuda de los aspectos destacados por Lacan, cuánto difieren las posiciones teóricas y clínicas vinculadas a dichas interpretaciones de las posiciones de Freud.

Avispas parasitoides Ophioninae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) del departamento de Arequipa, Perú / Parasitoid wasps Ophioninae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) from Arequipa Department, Perú

Resumen Se determinó la riqueza y composición de especies de avispas parasitoides nocturnas de la subfamilia Ophioninae en el departamento de Arequipa. Se evaluaron 16 localidades, a lo largo de un gradiente altitudinal que va desde el nivel del mar hasta los 4300 m; en cada localidad se realizaron colectas en los meses de marzo y mayo del 2018. Para la evaluación se emplearon trampas de luz. Se registraron 8 especies y 15 morfoespecies correspondientes a los géneros: Alophophion, Enicospilus, Eremotylus y Ophion. La mayor riqueza de Ophioninae se encontró a 3300 m (S = 8). Los géneros Alophophion y Ophion fueron más abundantes en las localidades sobre los 2000 m, Enicospilus fue más abundante en las localidades que se encontraban por debajo de los 1000 m, y Eremotylus solo se registró en una localidad a los 2300 m.

Abstract The species richness and composition of nocturnal parasitoid wasps Ophioninae subfamily in the Arequipa department was determined. Sixteen localities were evaluated along an altitude gradient that goes from sea level up to 4300 m; in each locality, collections were done in March and May 2018. Light traps were used for the evaluation. A total of 15 morphospecies and 8 species corresponding to the genera: Alophophion, Enicospilus, Eremotylus, and Ophion were registered. The highest richness of Ophioninae was found at 3300 m (S = 8). The genera Alophophion and Ophion were more abundant at medium to high elevations, Enicospilus was more abundant at low altitude localities, and Eremotylus was only recorded in a medium altitude locality.

El abate Molina, la viruela... y también Darwin / The Abbe Molina, the smallpox and also Darwin

Resumen Nuestro Abate Molina, nacido en Talca en 1740, debió hacer toda su notable carrera de naturalista en la Universidad de Bolonia, al ser expulsada de Chile la Orden Jesuita en 1767. En su juventud contrajo la viruela en 1761, enfermedad que lo tuvo a las puertas de la muerte, debiendo sufrir tanto por el virus como por los médicos y sus crueles e inútiles tratamientos, que incluyeron sangrías, enemas y "vinagre de los cuatro ladrones", de todo lo cual ha dejado constancia en dos "Elegías Latinas de la Viruela", de las cuales comentamos un puñado de versos de escaso valor literario pero de alto interés histórico. En una de sus últimas publicaciones esbozó algunas ideas evolucionistas, antecediendo en 44 años a la teoría de Darwin, siendo acusado de herejía y sometido a un juicio religioso que puso prácticamente fin a su carrera.

Abstract The Chilean Abbe Ignacio Molina (1740-1829) developed a brilliant career as naturalist in the University of Bologna, where he arrived when the Jesuit Order was expelled from the Spanish colonies in 1767, until he was accused of heresy because some ideas about evolution expressed in one of his late works, at the same time with Lamarck and 44 years before Darwin. In his youth Molina was affected in a severe way by smallpox, leaving us in two poems a vivid story of his suffering, not only by the disease itself but also for the useless therapeutic measures, some disagreeable, like enemas; other injurious, as bleeding and topic vinegar of the four thieves. A handful of the more significant verses from the two Latin Elegies "De peste variolarum" and "De peste variolis vulgo dicta" is analyzed: its literary value is scarce, its reading is bored, and its real merit only historic.

The Connection between Charles Darwin's Evolutionary Theory of ‘Heredity of Behaviors’ and the 19th Century Neuroscience: The Influence of Neuroscience on Darwin's Overcoming of Lamarck's Theory of Evolution / 의사학

The nineteenth century neuroscience studied the instinct of animal to understand the human mind. In particular, it has been found that the inheritance of unconscious behavior like instinct is mediated through ganglion chains, such as the spinal cord or sympathetic nervous system, which control unconscious reflexes. At the same time, the theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics (hereafter ‘IAC’) widely known as Lamarck's evolutionary theory provided the theoretical frame on the origin of instinct and the heredity of action that the parental generation's habits were converted into the nature of the offspring generation. Contrary to conventional knowledge, this theory was not originally invented by Lamarck, and Darwin also did not discard this theory even after discovering the theory of natural selection in 1838 and maintained it throughout his intellectual life. Above all, in the field of epigenetics, the theory of ‘IAC’ has gained attention as a reliable scientific theory today. Darwin discovered crucial errors in the late 1830s that the Lamarck version's theory of ‘IAC’ did not adequately account for the principle of the inheritance of unconscious behavior like instinct. Lamarck's theory regarded habits as conscious and willful acts and saw that those habits are transmitted through the brain to control conscious actions. Lamarck's theory could not account for the complex and elaborate instincts of invertebrate animals, such as brainless ants. Contrary to Lamarck's view, Darwin established the new theory of ‘IAC’ that could be combined with contemporary neurological theory, which explains the heredity of unconscious behavior. Based on the knowledge of neurology, Darwin was able to translate the ‘principle of habit’ into a neurological term called ‘principle of reflex’. This article focuses on how Darwin join the theory of ‘IAC’ with nineteenth century neuroscience and how the neurological knowledge from the nineteenth century contributed to Darwin's overcoming of Lamarck's ‘IAC’. The significance of this study is to elucidate Darwin's notion of ‘IAC’ theory rather than natural selection theory as a principle of heredity of behavior. The theory of ‘IAC’ was able to account for the rapid variation of instincts in a relatively short period of time, unlike natural selection, which operates slowly in geological time spans of tens of millions of years. The nineteenth century neurological theory also provided neurological principles for ‘plasticity of instinct,’ empirically supporting the fact that all nervous systems responsible for reflexes respond sensitively to very fine stimuli. However, researchers of neo-Darwinian tendencies, such as Richard Dawkins and evolutionary psychologists advocating the ‘selfish gene’ hypothesis, which today claim to be Darwin's descendants, are characterized by human nature embedded in biological information, such as the brain and genes, so that it cannot change at all. This study aims to contribute to reconstructing the evolutionary discourse by illuminating Darwin's insights into the “plasticity of nature” that instincts can change relatively easily even at the level of invertebrates such as earthworms.

Negotiating boundaries: Encyclopédie, romanticism, and the construction of science / Negociando fronteiras: Encyclopédie, romantismo e a construção da ciência

Abstract Natural history in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries has been widely debated in the field of the social sciences. This paper explores the social negotiation of boundaries in the Encyclopédie and romantic science. Highlighting the importance of imagination and aesthetics to the scientific realms, we perceive a different comprehension of the scientific field through the empirical study of how scientific demarcation is constructed. Works by Erasmus Darwin, Goethe, and Humboldt illustrate how reliable science was performed through atypical scientific methods. After pointing out the links between literary, artistic, and scientific works, we then debate a series of changes that framed the scientific imagery of romantic and encyclopaedic sciences.

Resumo A história natural nos séculos XVIII e XIX tem sido amplamente debatida no campo das ciências sociais. Este artigo explora a negociação social de fronteiras na Encyclopédie e na ciência romântica. Destacando a importância da imaginação e da estética para os domínios científicos, percebemos uma compreensão diferente do campo científico por meio do estudo empírico de como a demarcação científica é construída. Obras de Erasmus Darwin, Goethe e Humboldt ilustram como o conceito de ciência confiável foi elaborado por meio de métodos científicos atípicos. Depois de apontar os vínculos entre obras literárias, artísticas e científicas, discutimos uma série de mudanças que moldaram o imaginário científico das ciências romântica e enciclopédica.

La polémica evolucionista en España durante el siglo XIX: una revisión / The evolutionist debate in Spain during the nineteenth century: a re-examination

Resumen Este artículo realiza una revisión de los estudios sobre el evolucionismo en España y actualiza los conocimientos sobre el mismo tras los trabajos de Thomas Glick, la obra más filosófica de Diego Núñez y las aportaciones en los últimos años de la red latinoamericana de historia de la biología y la evolución, incidiendo en los aspectos más polémicos de la recepción de esta teoría. Incluye novedades como la identificación de los dibujos de El Museo Universal, siempre en discusión sobre su naturaleza lamarckiana o darwinista, el papel fundamental de la recepción de la obra de Haeckel en España frente a una recepción estrictamente darwiniana más débil, el papel jugado en la escuela histológica española y el impacto en la literatura.

Abstract This article re-examines the research on evolutionism in Spain and updates knowledge on this topic in light of the work of Thomas Glick, the more philosophical work of Diego Núñez and contributions in recent years from the Latin American network of historians of biology and evolution, who have dealt with the more polemical aspects of the reception of evolution theory. It includes new arguments, such as identification of the drawings in El Museo Universal, whose Lamarckian or Darwinian nature has been a subject of ongoing debate. It also covers the crucial role of the acceptance of Haeckel's work in Spain in comparison to the weaker support for a strictly Darwinian perspective, the role of the Spanish histology school, and the impact of evolutionism on literature.

Pangênese, genes, epigênese / Pangenesis, genes, epigenesis

Resumo Em 1868, Darwin publica seu livro The variation of animals and plants under domestication, no qual expõe sua teoria da hereditariedade. Nela se encontrava o pressuposto de que o desenvolvimento era fundamental para compreensão do processo evolutivo. No presente trabalho, é feita uma releitura da teoria darwiniana da pangênese, no intuito de rediscutir seu valor histórico. Conclui-se que a teoria da pangênese estava bem adequada a seu tempo e, mais do que isso, é possível encontrar ressonâncias de seu pressuposto em trabalhos das novas áreas biologia evolutiva do desenvolvimento (evo-devo) e epigenética.

Abstract In 1868, Darwin published his book The variation of animals and plants under domestication, which laid out his theory of heredity. This included the assumption that development was essential to understanding the evolutionary process. This present article reassesses the Darwinian theory of pangenesis in order to revisit its historical value. The conclusion is that the theory of pangenesis was well-suited to its time, and additionally, reflections of this assumption can be found in work in new areas known as evolutionary biology of development (evo-devo) and epigenetics.

Desconcertos na ciência / Disconcertments in science / Desconciertos en la ciencia

A ciência avança por meio de descobertas, algumas radicais, mas a maioria simplesmente aditiva ao conhecimento corrente. As descobertas radicais provocam reações negativas, tanto nos próprios cientistas como em leigos, dependendo da natureza da descoberta. Este artigo define desconcerto na ciência como sendo uma reação negativa provocada pelo advento de um novo paradigma científico. Há cerca de cem anos, Freud fez uma comparação entre a descoberta do inconsciente e as descobertas de Copérnico e Darwin, procurando mostrar que todas elas provocaram golpes no amor-próprio da humanidade, ou seja, desconcertos de acordo com a definição aqui usada. Essa comparação de Freud é analisada, e outros exemplos de desconcertos semelhantes são descritos, oriundos da genômica, da biogeografia histórica e do estudo da escrita dos antigos maias.

Science advances by discoveries; some of them are radical but most of them merely add to current knowledge. The radical discoveries provoke negative reactions on both scientists and laymen. This paper defines the disconcertment in science as being a negative reaction that is caused by the advent of a new scientific paradigm. About a hundred years ago, Freud compared the discovery of the unconscious to Copernicus's and Darwin's discoveries in order to demonstrate that all those discoveries had inflicted blows to mankind's self-esteem. In other words, according to the herein adopted definition, they had caused disconcertments. The author analyzes Freud's comparison, and brings other examples (of similar disconcertments) from other fields, such as genomics, historical biogeography, and the decipherment of the ancient Mayan writing.

La ciencia avanza mediante los descubrimientos, algunos radicales, pero la mayoría aditivos al conocimiento actual. Los descubrimientos radicales provocan reacciones negativas, tanto en los propios científicos como en los legos, dependiendo de la naturaleza del descubrimiento. Este artículo define el desconcierto en la ciencia como una reacción negativa provocada por el advenimiento de un nuevo paradigma científico. Hace cerca de cien años, Freud hizo una comparación entre el descubrimiento del inconsciente y los descubrimientos de Copérnico y Darwin, buscando mostrar que todos ellos provocaron golpes al amor propio de la humanidad, es decir, desconciertos de acuerdo con la definición aquí usada. Esta comparación de Freud es analizada, y otros ejemplos de desconciertos semejantes se describen, oriundos de la genómica, de la biogeografía histórica, y del estudio de la escritura de los antiguos mayas.

Especiação e seus mecanismos: histórico conceitual e avanços recentes / Speciation and its mechanisms: conceptual background and recent advances

Apresenta uma abordagem histórica sobre conceitos gerais de especiação e seus mecanismos, a partir das ideias primordiais até as teorias mais recentes que visam elucidar a origem da biodiversidade. Sabe-se que especiação é um tema polêmico e complexo que abrange praticamente todas as linhas de pesquisa dentro da biologia, além da geologia e da paleontologia. O objetivo principal do artigo é clarificar os conceitos teóricos sobre a origem das espécies animais, na ordem cronológica em que foram estabelecidos, ao longo do desenvolvimento da biologia evolutiva como ciência.

This paper presents a historical approach on general concepts of speciation and its mechanisms, from the primordial ideas to the most recent theories that seek to elucidate the origin of biodiversity. It is common knowledge that speciation is a controversial and complex issue that encompasses virtually all the lines of research of biology, in addition to geology and paleontology. The main objective of the paper is to clarify the theoretical concepts on the origin of the animal species, in the chronological order in which they became established throughout the whole of the development of evolutionary biology as a science.

A temática darwiniana em Freud: um exame das referências a Darwin na obra freudiana / Darwinian thematic in Freud: an examination on the references to Darwin in the freudian work / La temática darwiniana en Freud: un examen de las referencias a Darwin en la obra freudiana

Este artigo visa examinar as referências a Charles Darwin (1809-1882) na obra freudiana buscando verificar qual o uso que Freud fez da teoria darwiniana e a que conceitos desta aludiu quando citou o nome do célebre evolucionista inglês. Assim, aborda-se o tema da influência de Darwin sobre Freud por meio de uma via mais evidente que, no entanto, foi pouco explorada. Essa abordagem mostra-se profícua, na medida em que fornece sólidas indicações de que o fundador da psicanálise buscou em Darwin não apenas subsídios conceituais a respeito da dinâmica anímica humana.

This article aims to examine the references to Charles Darwin (1809-1882) in the Freudian work seeking to evaluate which use Freud made of Darwin's theory and which concepts he referred to while citing Darwin's name. Thus, we deal with the theme of Darwin's influence on Freud by means of a more evident way that, however, was poorly explored. This approach reveals itself to be fruitful, in that it provides strong indications that the founder of psychoanalysis sought in Darwin not only conceptual tools in respect of the human psychic dynamics as well as a model for theorizing.

Este artículo examina las referencias a Charles Darwin (1809-1882) en la obra freudiana, a fin de verificar cual es el uso que hizo Freud de la teoría darwiniana y a qué conceptos de esta teoría se refería cuando mencionaba el nombre de Darwin. En consecuencia, el artículo aborda el tema de la influencia de Darwin en Freud por una vía más evidente que, sin embargo, ha sido poco explotada. Este abordaje se revela proficuo, pues provee sólidas indicaciones de que el fundador del psicoanálisis ha buscado en Darwin no solamente subsidios conceptuales respecto a la dinámica anímica sino también un modelo de teorizar.

Charles Darwin: um observador do desenvolvimento humano / Charles Darwin: observer of human development / Charles Darwin: observateur du développement humain / Charles Darwin: observador del desarrollo humano

Os autores traduzem, pela primeira vez para o português, o artigo de Charles Darwin “A Biographical Sketch of an Infant”, publicado no periódico Mind em julho de 1877. Utilizando anotações de observações do desenvolvimento de seus filhos, especialmente de seu filho mais velho William Erasmus (Doddy), Darwin descreve e estuda, a partir de seu enfoque naturalista, o filhote humano, narrando os primeiros indicativos comportamentais de emoções tais como raiva e medo, curiosidade e senso moral, o brincar e o prazer envolvido nesta atividade, a capacidade de imitação e os primeiros indícios daquilo que hoje conhecemos como“teoria da mente”. Colocando-se questões sobre as capacidades do bebê,como eles aprendem e como se comunicam e levantando hipóteses sobre possíveis significados de certos comportamentos, questões ainda hoje fundamentais para o estudo do desenvolvimento humano, Darwin mostra--se também um pioneiro no estudo do bebê e da criança pequena, numa época na qual as capacidades dos bebês eram extremamente subestimadas e desconsideradas.

The authors provide the first translation into Portuguese of Charles Darwin’sarticle “A Biographical Sketch of an Infant,” published in the journal Mind in July of1877. Using notes from observations of the development of his children, especially hisoldest son William Erasmus (Doddy), Darwin uses his naturalistic approach to describeand study “human puppies,” providing the first behavioral indicators of emotions suchas anger and fear, curiosity and moral sense. He also notes the play and pleasureinvolved in these activities, along with the ability to imitate and the earliest indicatorsof what we refer to today as “theory of the mind.” Darwin raises questions about thecapabilities of babies, how they learn and how they communicate and generate hypotheses about possible meanings of certain behaviors. These issues are still criticalto the study of human development. This shows that he was also a pioneer in the studyof babies and young children at a time when the capacity of babies was underestimated and ignored.

Los autores traducen por primera vez para el portugués el artículo de CharlesDarwin “A Biographical Sketch of an Infant”, publicado en la revista Mind, en juliode 1877. Utilizando las notas de las observaciones del desarrollo de sus hijos,especialmente la de su hijo mayor, William Erasmus (Doddy), Darwin estudia y describe, desde su enfoque naturalista, el cachorro humano. Describe las primeras conductas indicadoras de emociones como ira y miedo, la curiosidad y el sentido moral, el juegoy el placer en participar en esa actividad, la capacidad de imitar y el comienzo de loque conocemos como “la teoría de la mente”. Planteándose cuestiones sobre lacapacidad del bebé, sobre como aprenden y sobre como se comunican y levantandohipótesis sobre los posibles significados de determinadas conductas; problemas quesiguen siendo críticos para el estudio del desarrollo humano, mostrando que Darwintambién fue un pionero en el estudio de los bebés y niño pequeño, en una época en quelas capacidades de los bebés eran extremamente desconsideradas.

Les auteurs ont effectués la traduction inédite en portugais de l’article de CharlesDarwin, “A Biographical Sketch of an Infant” publié dans la revue Mind en Juillet1877. En utilisant les notes d’observations sur le développement de ses enfants,notamment de son fils aîné, William Erasmus (Doddy), Darwin étudie et décrit l’enfanthumain de son point-de-vue naturaliste. Il décrit ainsi les premiers indicateurs du comportement sentimental, comme la colère et la peur, la curiosité et le sens moral, lejeu et le plaisir qu’implique cette activité, la capacité d’imiter et le début de ce que nousappelons aujourd'hui la “théorie de l’esprit”. Dans cet article, Darwin pose desquestions sur les capacités de l’enfant, leur façon d'apprendre et de communiquer. Ilcrée des hypothèses sur les possibles significations de certains comportements, questionsqui sont encore aujourd’hui critiques à l’étude du développement humain et quimontrent que Darwin fut également un pionnier des études sur les bébés et les petitsenfants à une époque où la capacité des bébés était gravement sous-estimée et négligée.

Freud e Darwin: ansiedade como sinal, uma resposta adaptativa ao perigo / Freud and Darwin: Signal Anxiety as an Adaptive Reaction to Danger

Nos últimos anos, o paradigma evolucionário tem norteado o estudo dos atualmente chamados "transtornos de ansiedade". Para a Psiquiatria evolutiva, as raízes da ansiedade encontram-se nas reações de defesa dos animais em face de estímulos que representam perigo/ameaça à sobrevivência, ao bem-estar ou à integridade física das diferentes espécies. Muito embora Sigmund Freud, ao longo de sua obra, tenha demonstrado interesse pelas origens evolutivas da mente humana, suas contribuições nessa área têm, frequentemente, sido desprezadas, sob a alegação de que são baseadas em um mecanismo evolucionário ultrapassado: a transmissão hereditária dos caracteres adquiridos, de autoria atribuída a Lamarck. O objetivo do presente trabalho é investigar a influência exercida por Darwin sobre uma formulação teórica de Freud, o conceito de ansiedade como sinal. Procurar-se-à demonstrar que o conceito de ansiedade como sinal parte do pressuposto de que a ansiedade pode ser uma reação adaptativa a situações de perigo, apresentando semelhanças com o que foi formulado por Charles Darwin na obra "A expressão das emoções no homem e nos animais" (1872). Para Darwin, o valor adaptativo dessa emoção encontra-se no fato de a ansiedade ter uma função biológica a cumprir. Para Freud, a ansiedade é adaptativa não apenas por preparar o animal para lidar com o perigo por meio da mobilização de energia psíquica, mas também por auxiliar na detecção antecipada de novas ocorrências do estado de perigo. Tanto a transmissão hereditária dos caracteres adquiridos quanto outros mecanismos evolutivos hoje desacreditados, como a teoria da recapitulação, são mecanismos utilizados extensivamente tanto por Freud quanto por Darwin.

The evolutionary perspective has long influenced the study of anxiety. For modern Evolutionary Psychiatry, anxiety disorders are nothing else than pathologies of the defense system. Although Sigmund Freud, throughout his career, was also interested in the evolutionary origins of the human mind, his contributions to the field have frequently been forgotten, based on the allegation that his evolutionary theory of psychopathology is founded on a discredited evolutionary mechanism: the "Lamarckian" idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics. The present study investigates the influence of Darwin over the Freudian concept of signal anxiety. It shows that the concept assumes that anxiety is an adaptive reaction to danger, an idea influenced by his readings of Darwin's "The expression of emotions in man and animals" (1872). Signal anxiety is adaptive not only because it prepares the animal to deal with danger through the mobilization of psychic energy, but also because it helps the anticipated detection of new occurrences of the state of danger. The "Lamarckian" use and inheritance law, and other so-called "discredited evolutionary mechanisms", such as theory of recapitulation, are extensively referred to by both Freud and Darwin.

Parte iii de hesslow a hooker: darwin y los inicios del pensamiento evolutivo en botánica / From Henslow to Hooker: Darwin and the Early Evolutionary Thought in Botany

Aunque no lo suficientemente conocida y difundida, la obra botánica de Darwin aportó una gran cantidad de evidencia empírica fundamental para el establecimiento de la revolución darwinista. Se describe el desarrollo de esta obra, en especial con relación a los dos mentores de Darwin en botánica: J. S. Henslow y J. D. Hooker. Además de numerosos artículos y notas en sus diarios de viaje, su correspondencia y numerosos apartes de sus dos obras magnas El origen de las especies y selección natural, Darwin escribió siete libros relacionados con diversos aspectos de la botánica, incluída la polinización en orquídeas, la morfología y fisiología de plantas trepadoras, la domesticación, las plantas insectívoras, la polinización, las formas florales, y los movimientos de las plantas. Cada uno de estos libros es ahora clásico en cada tema. La introducción de la teoría evolutiva en la sistemática de plantas enriqueció los distintos sistemas de clasificación en los 70 años que siguieron a la publiación de El origen, lo cual está en estrecha relación con las preguntas, aún vigentes, acerca del origen y la diversificación temprana de las angiospermas. A la vez, se revisa la influencia de las contribuciones botánicas de Darwin en las obras de autores en diversos países de Europa y América, y en disciplinas tan diversas y actuales como la biogeografía, la biología reproductiva en muy diversos grupos de plantas con flor, la citología y mecanismos de herencia en la célula vegetal, la teratología vegetal, las variaciones debidas a domesticación, y la reciente integración de evolución, genética y desarrollo en la disciplina conocida como evo-devo.

Despite Darwin s botanical works are not sufficiently known, they provided a large amount of critical, empirical evidence in favor of the darwinian revolution. This paper describes the development of such works in connection to the influence of two of Darwin s mentors in botany, J. S. Henslow and J. D. Hooker. Besides numerous articles, field notes, extensive correspondence, and Darwin s main books, The Origin of Species and Natural Selection, he wrote seven books related to different botanical issues, including orchid pollination, morphology and physiology of climbers, domestication, insectivorous plants, cross-and self-pollination, floral forms, and plant movements. Each of these volumes became classic on each topic. The introduction of the evolutionary theory in plant systematics had a positive effect by increasing the systems of classification during the 70 years following the publication of The Origin, which is in close relation to the still unresolved questions about the origin and early diversification of angiosperms. In addition, we review the influence of Darwin s contributions in European and American authors, as well as in current disciplines such as biogeography, reproductive biology, citology and mechanisms of heredity in the plant cell, plant teratology, plant domestication, and the new integration of evolution, genetics and development under the discipline known as evo-devo.

Problemas altrisstas darwinianos / Darwinian Altruistic Issues

Darwin propuso en 1871 que preferiría descender de un mono que de los -salvajes-. El mono es un babuino Papio hamadryas que, en un relato de Brehm, salva a un infante de una jauría. Los -salvajes- son los fueguinos a los que visitó en el año 1833. ¿Por qué Darwin, a pesar de haber sido tan buen observador del comportamiento animal, no pudo discernir en qué consistía la sociedad de cazadores-recolectores de los cuatro grupos humanos de Tierra del Fuego? Esto es lo que tratamos de dilucidar en este trabajo.

In 1871 Darwin mentioned that he would rather descent from a monkey than from -savages-. The monkey in question was a Papio hamadryas baboon that, in Brehm's account, saves an infant from a pack of dogs. The -savages- were the now disappeared Fuegians, whom he visited in the Beagle's voyage, in 1833. Why Darwin through he was a very good observer of animal behavior could not discern the social characteristics of the four hunter-gatherer human societies he knew in Tierra del Fuego? Our aim in this work is to try to elucidate this dilemma.

Darwin o el faloo conflicto entre la teoría de a selección natural y la hipóteesis de la pangénesis / Darwin or the False Conflict Between the Theory of Natural Selection and the Hypotheses Pangenesis

Teniendo como objetivo buscar una compresión más integral de la obra de Darwin, presento una reflexión sobre el desarrollo de sus ideas, resaltando las influencias que la visión mecánica de la naturaleza, el lamarckismo y las teorías recapitulacionistas alemanas, ejercieron sobre él. Se destaca la originalidad de la teoría de la selección natural surgida por comparación con el cruce dirigido y fundamentada en una interpretación de la naturaleza como sistema económico donde se aplica la ley de población de Malthus. Sin embargo, la preocupación de Darwin por el origen de la variación lo llevó a considerar el carácter complejo de este problema y en particular, lo relacionado con la influencia del medio ambiente en la variación evolutiva. En este contexto se destaca la importancia histórica que tiene su fallida presentación de la hipótesis de la pangénesis. Para concluir se muestra que a pesar de que el concepto de evolución por selección natural presupone la existencia de variaciones individuales azarosas, Darwin continuó con su intento obstinado de encontrar las leyes de la variación, las cuales creyó haber explicado mediante esta hipótesis.

In order to provide a more integral view of Darwin’s work, I present the development of his ideas, showing the influence of the mechanical view of nature on one hand, and the Lamarckian recapitulationism on the other. The originality of the theory of evolution by natural selection is highlighted, while showing its connection with the analogy with breeders directed crosses and its theoretical justification inspired in Mathus population theory. However, it is explained how Darwin’s concern with the problem of the origin of evolutionary variations led him to consider the role of the environment in the production of variants. In this context it is explained the historical importance of his ill-fated hypothesis of pangenesis. To conclude, it is shown that though the concept of evolution by natural selection assumes the randomness of individual variations, Darwin nevertheless pursued his stubborn search for the laws of variations that he believed to have accounted for with this hypothesis.

Darwin y la impssibilidad de causas finales en la bollogía / Darwin and the Impossibility of Final Causes in Biology

La teoría de la selección natural propuesta por Charles Darwin en su obra El origen de las especies no solo colocó las bases para una explicación coherente de los hechos fundamentales de la biología (el origen común de los seres vivos, la diversidad de individuos y especies y la transmisión de características hereditarias), sino que además introdujo maneras nuevas de hacer filosofía. La teoría de la selección natural hace superflua cualquier posibilidad de apelar a explicaciones de tipo finalista en la ciencia. Desde Aristóteles se conocen cuatro tipos de causa: la material, la formal, la eficiente y la final. Aunque la causa eficiente es el paradigma de explicación por exce-lencia de las ciencias naturales, la causa final sigue desempeñando un papel explicativo, por cuanto parece estar arraigada en nuestra estructura humana de pensamiento y la tendencia a presentar explicaciones finalistas sigue siendo recalcitrante. Quizá por estar los seres humanos tan familiarizados con la complejidad inherente a los procesos de diseño en las artes y en la técnica y quizá por la circunstancia de que los seres humanos organizamos casi todas nuestras acciones en torno a propósitos, es decir, a la definición de unos fines para los cuales buscamos unos medios, suponemos por vía de analogía que la naturaleza en su complejidad exige la presencia y acción de un diseñador inteligente. Kant en la Crítica de la facultad de juzgar hace una defensa del carácter "irrenunciable al género humano" de este modelo explicativo. Para contro-vertir esta opinión milenaria, me apoyaré, en investigaciones recientes de Richard Dawkins y de otros biólogos contemporáneos para mostrar con la evolución de ojos en la naturaleza que el surgimiento de órganos de alta complejidad puede ser explicado sin problema con la teoría de la selección natural propuesta por Darwin en 1859.

Darwin’s theory of natural selection in The Origin of Species not only laid the fundamental elements for a persuasive explanation of biological facts (as the common origin of all living beings, the rich diversity of individuals and species and partially the transmission of hereditary characters), but rather it introduces new forms for doing philosophy. The theory of natural selection leaves no room for final explanations and causes in the natural sciences. Since Aristotle there are four types of causes: material, formal, efficient and final. The efficient cause is since the 17th century the established model of explanation in natural science. However the final cause type of explanation seems to be well rooted in the structure of our human understanding. As creative artists, as craft designers, as lawgivers in societies, human beings are fully conscious that complexity in organization requires previous intelligence. As free rational beings we tend to organize most of our actions as purposive in terms of selecting ends and means. As I will show we suppose wrongly by way of analogy that the explanation of complexity in nature likewise requires the presence and the action of an intelligent being. Kant in his Kritik der Urteilskraft defended that this model of explanation seems to be "unrejectable for human beings". With an analysis of contemporary research work done by Richard Dawkins and others on the evolution of eyes in nature, I will show that in 1859 Darwin´s theory of natural selection demolished this millenary way of thinking, in which final cause has a place for explanation in natural science.

Epilepsy research 150 years after Darwin's theory of evolution / Pesquisas em epilepsia 150 anos após a teoria da evolução de Darwin

On February 12, 2009, we commemorated the 200th anniversary of Charles Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of the ûrst edition of the "On the origin of species". Only in the sixth edition of the Origin Darwin explicitly stated that natural selection applied to the brain as to all other organs and contemporary epilepsy research plays an interesting role in this scenario. Epilepsy affects approximately 3 percent of the general population and is a complex disease. At least 11 genes have now been described for human epilepsy and over 50 more genes have been identified in animal models of epilepsy. The complex gene to gene interactions and gene-environment interactions may account for epilepsy susceptibility and antiepileptic drug response. Darwin's thoughts on evolution are relevant to understand these gene interactions, contributing to current development of new treatments and prevention of chronic diseases, such as epilepsy.

Em 12 de Fevereiro de 2009 nós comemoramos o aniversário de 200 anos de Charles Darwin e os 150 anos da publicação da primeira edição do livro "A Origem das Espécies". Apenas na sexta edição do livro A Origem, Darwin explicitamente definiu que a seleção natural se aplicava ao cérebro, assim como a todos os outros órgãos e as pesquisas contemporâneas em epilepsia tem um papel interessante neste cenário. A epilepsia afeta aproximadamente 3 por cento da população geral e é uma doença complexa. Ao menos 11 genes foram descritos até o momento na epilepsia humana e mais de 50 genes foram identificados em modelos animais de epilepsia. As complexas interações gene-gene e genes-meio ambiente podem estar relacionadas com a susceptibilidade à epilepsia e respostas às drogas antiepilépticas. Os pensamentos de Darwin quanto à evolução são relevantes para a compreensão dessas interações gênicas, contribuindo para o desenvolvimento de novos tratamentos e na prevenção de doenças crônicas, como a epilepsia.

Why Darwin rejected intelligent design.

Natural Theology is constructed around the analogy of a watchmaker, a metaphor borrowed from previous advocates of the design doctrine. Imagine, Paley suggests, that you are walking across a heath and suddenly encounter a watch lying on the ground. After close inspection of the watch, you would be compelled to conclude that such an intricate device could not have been constructed otherwise in order for it to work. It is only reasonable to assume “that the watch must have had a maker; that there must have existed, at some time and at some place or other, an artifi cer or artifi cers who formed it for the purpose which we fi nd it actually to answer; who comprehended its construction, and designed its use” (1802:3–4). In the case of living organisms Paley continued, the evidence for design is even stronger “in a degree which exceeds all computation” (1802:19), and he concluded: “The marks of design are too strong to be got over. Design must have had a designer. That designer must have been a person. That person is GOD” (1802:473). The efforts by Ray, Paley, and others to unite natural history with theology were among the inducements that inclined Darwin, at the age of eighteen, to look favourably on a career in the church. Sent by his father two years earlier to study medicine at Edinburgh University, Darwin had found himself uninspired by this profession and revolted by the sight of operations, which at that time were conducted without the benefi t of anesthesia. Worried that his son might turn into “an idle sporting man,” Darwin’s.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882): su legado para la psicología / Charles Darwin (1809-1882): his legacy to psychology

Se celebra este año el bicentenario del nacimiento del científico inglés Charles Darwin, y con ese motivo se presenta un breve perfil de su vida y una caracterización crítica de su obra y de la duradera influencia de esta sobre la Psicología.

Amidst the celebration of the bicentennial of Charles Darwin’s birth, a brief profile of his life is presented, along with a critical appraisal of his works and its long-lasting influence on Psychology.

Darwin y las bacterias / Darwin and bacteria

As in 2009 the scientific world celebrates two hundreds years from the birthday of Charles Darwin and one hundred and fifty from the publication of The Origin of Species, an analysis of his complete work is performed, looking for any mention of bacteria. But it seems that the great naturahst never took knowledge about its existence, something rather improbable in a time when the discovery of bacteria shook the medical world, or he deliberately ignored them, not finding a place for such microscopic beings into his theory of evolution. But the bacteria badly affected his familiar life, killing scarlet fever one of his children and worsening to death the evolution of tuberculosis of his favourite Annie. Darwin himself could suffer the sickness of Chagas, whose etiological agent has a similar level to bacteria in the scale of evolution.

Con motivo de cumplirse 200 años del natalicio de Darwin y 150 desde la publicación de El Origen de las Especies, se revisa su obra buscando alguna mención de las bacterias, a las cuales el gran naturalista parece, o bien no haber conocido, algo muy difícil en un momento en que causaban sensación en el mundo científico, o bien haber ignorado deliberadamente, porque no encontraba para ellas lugar en su teoría de la evolución. Las bacterias, por su parte, afectaron malamente su vida familiar, falleciendo uno de sus hijos de escarlatina y su hija favorita, Arme, de una tuberculosis agravada por el mismo mal que mató a su hermano. El propio Darwin, desde el regreso del Beagle afectado por una enfermedad crónica hasta ahora no dilucidada, podría haber sufrido de la enfermedad de Chagas, cuyo agente etiológico, si bien no es una bacteria, tiene un similar nivel en la escala evolutiva.