Teaching How to Study Expository Texts: A Programmed Instruction / Ensinar a Estudar Textos Didáticos: Uma Programação de Ensino

Abstract The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate the application of computerized programming to teach how to study expository texts. Principles of programmed instruction were used, and different target behaviors were focused on: inspecting the text, locating and highlighting important information, paraphrasing, building schemes, and conceptual maps, and elaborating questions on the topic. The activities were designed and carried out using Google Forms, Socrative, and Wordwall applications. Nine students from the 3rd to the 6th year of elementary school, from public and private schools, participated in this study. Participation was online and remote. The results showed an improvement in the performance of the participants in seven of the ten selected objectives for evaluation. In conclusion, it is possible to teach how to study expository texts through programmed instruction based on a clear description of the objectives involved in this repertoire.

Resumo O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar a aplicação de uma programação informatizada para ensinar a estudar textos didáticos. Utilizando princípios para a elaboração do ensino programado, teve-se como foco diferentes comportamentos-alvo: inspecionar o texto, localizar e grifar informações importantes, parafrasear, construir esquemas e mapas conceituais, e elaborar questões sobre o tema. As atividades foram elaboradas e realizadas utilizando os aplicativos Google Forms, Socrative e Wordwall. Participaram desse estudo nove estudantes do 3o ao 6o ano do ensino fundamental, de escolas públicas e privadas. A participação foi online e remota. Os resultados apontaram melhora no desempenho dos participantes em sete dos dez comportamentos selecionados para avaliação. Conclui-se que é possível ensinar comportamentos de estudo de textos didáticos por meio de uma programação de ensino a partir da descrição clara dos objetivos envolvidos neste repertório.

The role of executive functions in the comprehension of expository and narrative texts by high school students / El rol de las funciones ejecutivas en la comprensión de textos expositivos y narrativos en estudiantes de secundaria

Abstract Introduction: Reading comprehension is a complex skill that involves several linguistic and cognitive processes. While the evidence indicates that expository texts are more difficult and cognitively demanding than narrative texts, the contribution of core executive functions to comprehension has seldom been compared between these genres, particularly in adolescents. The present study examined the association of executive functions with expository and narrative text comprehension in Argentinean high school students, while controlling for their verbal skills. Method: One hundred and twenty-one 12 to15-year-old high school students participated in our study (75.2% of them were girls). Participants completed pencil and paper tests in reading comprehension (TLC-II), vocabulary (BAIRES) and reading efficacy (TECLE), as well as computerised tests in shifting, inhibition and verbal and visuospatial working memory from the Cognitive Self-Regulation Test Battery (TAC). Results: We found lower comprehension scores in the expository text. Shifting and verbal working memory were predictors of reading comprehension beyond verbal skills, but we did not observe significant differences between text types. Comprehension in general was lower for third-year students. Conclusion: In accord with the literature, we observed greater difficulties for expository text comprehension, and a general contribution of shifting and working memory to both types of text. We found no conclusive evidence of differences in this association between text types. Third-year students' comprehension might have been affected by the impact of the pandemic on their schooling trajectory.

Resumen Introducción: la comprensión de textos es una habilidad compleja que involucra diversos procesos lingüísticos y cognitivos. Si bien la evidencia indica que los textos expositivos son más difíciles y cognitivamente demandantes que los narrativos, la contribución de las funciones ejecutivas a la comprensión de ambos rara vez se ha comparado en adolescentes. Este artículo examinó la asociación de las funciones ejecutivas con la comprensión de textos expositivos y narrativos en estudiantes de secundaria argentinos, controlando sus habilidades verbales. Método: ciento veintiún estudiantes de secundaria de entre 12 y 15 años (75.2 % mujeres) participaron del estudio, los cuales realizaron pruebas de comprensión de textos narrativo y expositivo, vocabulario, eficacia lectora, y de flexibilidad cognitiva, inhibición, memoria de trabajo verbal y visoespacial. Resultados: encontramos puntajes de comprensión más bajos en el texto expositivo. La flexibilidad y la memoria de trabajo verbal fueron predictores de la comprensión de textos más allá de las habilidades verbales, sin observarse diferencias significativas por tipo de texto. La comprensión fue más baja en los alumnos de tercer año en general. Conclusiones: en línea con la literatura, se observó una mayor dificultad en la comprensión del texto expositivo, y una contribución general de la flexibilidad y la memoria de trabajo a la comprensión de ambos textos. No se encontró evidencia concluyente de diferencias en esta asociación por tipo de texto. La comprensión de los estudiantes de tercero puede haber sido afectada por el impacto de la pandemia en su trayectoria educativa.

Comprensión oral y escrita: efectos de la estructura textual / Reading and listening comprehension: effects of text structure

Resumen La comprensión lectora resulta fundamental en la vida escolar de los niños, dado que constituye el principal mecanismo para la adquisición de nuevos conocimientos. Distintos estudios han analizado la relación entre la comprensión lectora, las habilidades lingüísticas y el nivel lector de los sujetos. Sin embargo, resulta importante para el estudio del procesamiento textual, atender también al tipo de estructura de los textos. El presente trabajo se propone comparar el desempeño de un grupo de niños hispanohablantes en comprensión oral y escrita de dos tipos textuales distintos: narrativos y expositivos. Para ello, se evaluó a un grupo de 32 niños de 4to grado de una escuela primaria del conurbano bonaerense argentino mediante pruebas de comprensión oral y escrita de textos narrativos y expositivos. Además, se administró una prueba de vocabulario y de precisión y velocidad en la lectura de palabras. Los resultados señalaron la existencia de correlaciones entre la comprensión oral y escrita de los dos tipos textuales evaluados, y entre el desempeño en comprensión oral y escrita y el nivel de vocabulario de los niños. El análisis comparativo entre modalidades de presentación señaló un desempeño significativamente superior en la comprensión de textos narrativos orales frente a los escritos. Esta diferencia no se trasladó a los textos expositivos en los cuales los niños obtuvieron desempeños bajos, en ambas modalidades. Los datos obtenidos sugieren que los textos expositivos presentan un formato con características específicas que complejizan la comprensión de los niños más allá del soporte en el cual se presenten.

Abstract Reading comprehension is the ability to create a mental representation of a written text. It constitutes the main mechanism through children incorporate new knowledge at school age. Reading comprehension achievement has been systematically associated with oral comprehension and reading rate. Furthermore, both oral and reading comprehension has been related to inferences generation and different linguistic abilities, like vocabulary and syntax processing. In the case of text comprehension, also orthographic recognition of written words plays a fundamental role and, for that reason, reading comprehension would be a greater challenge than oral comprehension for early readers. Indeed, word recognition during reading is essential for text meaning construction. It is well known that a slow and laborious reading mechanism would overload cognitive processing and that reading automaticity is essential to carry out text processing. Longitudinal studies realized in different orthographies indicated that reading rate was the variable that had greatest impact on reading comprehension in early readers. In studies carried out in shallow orthographies, it was also observed that reading performance have an important impact on reading comprehension measure after 3 to 5 years of instruction. However, although impact of reading skills and oral comprehension mechanisms on reading comprehension has been reported in several studies, there is another important factor to consider: text structure. Studies propose that children tend to understand "narrative schemas" more easily since they are exposed to this type of text from a very early age. Likewise, all narrative texts present, in general, the same type of structure, respect temporal sequence of events and focus on story characters, their actions and motivations. In contrast, expository texts present new information to children, are oriented to a specific topic, contain less familiar and more technical vocabulary and a higher level of abstraction. This type of structure presents numerous cohesive connections and greater propositional density than narrative texts. The present study aims to compare listening and reading comprehension of narrative and expository text. For this, a group of 32 4th graders was evaluated in oral and reading comprehension of narrative and expository texts. In reading comprehension test, children read narrative and expository texts and then orally answered a series of questions. In oral comprehension, both narrative and expository texts were read aloud to children and then they answered questions about the texts orally. Vocabulary and reading rate were also measured. Data analysis shows correlations between oral comprehension and vocabulary. Reading comprehension were associated to vocabulary, oral comprehension and reading rate. Results suggest that oral and reading comprehension are associated with different linguistic skills and to each support access skills. In comprehension test, measures show higher performance in narrative oral comprehension texts when compared to reading comprehension. This result could be related to children reading rate. In fact, reading performance shows that children were "slow readers" according to the reading tests scales used in this study. Difference between oral and written comprehension in narrative texts, was not transferred to expository. In this type of texts children had low scores, without significant differences, in oral and reading comprehension. Results suggested that expository structures challenge children comprehension in both, oral and written modality. It is suggested that different types of expository texts difficult hierarchization of information that allows, in turn, the construction of text mental representation. Data of this study suggest the importance of establish interventions that allow children to improv text processing for access higher levels of comprehension in different textual structures. Furthermore, it is necessary in educational practices to expose children to expository structures from an early age. On the other hand, it is necessary to rethink reading instruction methods that originate low reading performance.

Procedimientos de revisión de textos expositivos: ¿son algunos textos mejores que otros para la comprensión? / Expository text revision: Are some texts better than others for comprehension?

Los textos expositivos son una importante herramienta para el aprendizaje. Los métodos que se proponen mejorar la calidad de estos textos reciben el nombre de procedimientos de revisión de textos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue realizar un recorrido a través de tres de ellos: procedimiento de repetición de términos, método causal-temporal y método de incremento de la densidad de relaciones, a fin de señalar sus posibilidades y limitaciones. A partir de los resultados de las investigaciones que los han utilizado, es posible proponer que el método de repetición de términos parece ser adecuado para promover un recuerdo literal del texto, dado que facilita el establecimiento de conexiones entre oraciones contiguas. El método causal-temporal parece más adecuado para promover una comprensión profunda del texto expositivo histórico. Y, el método de incremento de la densidad de relaciones parece adecuado para promover una comprensión profunda de cualquier tipo de texto expositivo.

Expository texts are an important tool for learning. The methods designed to improve their quality are called text revision procedures. The goal of this article was to present three of them: the argument-overlap procedure, the causal constructionist method, and the procedure of increasing coherence relations, in order to signal their possibilities and limitations. Given the results of the studies that have tested them, it is possible to suggest that the argument-overlap procedure seems appropriate to promote text recall, given that it facilitates the establishment of local connections. The causal constructionist method seems more appropriate to promote a deep comprehension of history texts. And, the method of increasing coherence relations seems appropriate to promote a deep comprehension of any expository text.