Emerging drug resistant pathogens from food animals: Balancing food security and safety in developing countries

@#Drugs are used essentially to treat illnesses in humans and animals. When metabolized in food animals, they are harmless, but residues may remain in tissues, meat and milk that can present risks in the food chain. A longterm consequence of drug residues in food of animal origin is the development and emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Generally, increasing the use of antimicrobials in medical and veterinary practice exacerbates AMR. Spread of infection or resistant pathogen or resistance genes in the environment can be explained by the close link between humans, animals, and the environment. The public health and economic impact of AMR have been estimated to be around 100 trillion US dollars each year and food animals are a major reservoir of AMR microorganisms in many low and middle income countries (LMIC). However,due to the lack of data on food-borne pathogens and antimicrobial usage is a challenge in the control of AMR in LMICs where the food industry is heterogeneous, largely informal, and unregulated. Emergence and transmission of AMR in developing countries are linked to food of animal origins, but the awareness of this relationship is low. Overall, the challenge of food insufficiency also described as food insecurity and a lack of adequate food safety measures can worsen the incidence and persistence of AMR. This review summarizes the issues and challenges of emerging drug resistant pathogens from food animals in developing countries, and highlights the importance of a holistic perspective in addressing AMR in humans in the context of the One Health approach.

Antimicrobial resistance in the environment: The Indian scenario

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) continues to pose a significant public health problem in terms of mortality and economic loss. Health authorities of several countries including India have formulated action plans for its containment. In this fight against AMR, it is important to realize the contribution by all the following four spheres: humans, animals, food and environment. This review incorporates all the spheres of One Health concept from the Indian perspective. India has one of the highest rates of resistance to antimicrobial agents used both in humans and food animals. The environment, especially the water bodies, have also reported the presence of resistant organisms or their genes. Specific socio-economic and cultural factors prevalent in India make the containment of resistance more challenging. Injudicious use of antimicrobials and inadequate treatment of waste waters are important drivers of AMR in India. Use of sludge in agriculture, improper discard of livestock animals and aquaculture industry are considered AMR contributors in other countries but Indian data regarding these are lacking. Efforts to combat AMR have been initiated by the Indian health authorities but are still at preliminary stages. Keeping in view the challenges unique to India, future directions are proposed.

Understanding policy dilemmas around antibiotic use in food animals & offering potential solutions

The looming concern of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has prompted the government of many countries of the world to act upon and come up with the guidelines, comprehensive recommendations and policies concerning prudent use of antibiotics and containment of AMR. However, such initiatives from countries with high incidence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in food animals are still in infancy. This review highlights the existing global policies on antibiotics use in food animals along with details of the various Indian policies and guidelines. In India, in spite of availability of integrated policies for livestock, poultry and aquaculture sector, uniform regulations with coordinated initiative are needed to formulate strict policies regarding antimicrobial use both in humans and animals. In an attempt to create effective framework to tackle the AMR, the Indian Council of Medical Research initiated a series of dialogues with various stakeholders and suggested various action points for urgent implementation. This review summarizes the recommendations made during the various consultations. The overarching aim of this review is to clearly delineate the action points which need to be carried out urgently to regulate the antibiotic use in animals.

Shiga Toxin and Non-Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli O157 from Cattle, Goats and Chickenin Ado-Ekiti, South West, Nigeria.

Background: Illnesses due to contaminated food, particularly food of animal origin, are perhaps the most widespread health problem in the contemporary world. Aims: To detect Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in food animals in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria and the possible risk to human health. Study Design: Non-repeat faecal samples from various animals and poultry birds were examined for STEC. Place and Duration of Study: Department of Microbiology, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, between January 2010 and December 2011. Methodology: We investigated 722 non-repeat faecal samples from animals and poultry birds for the presence of STEC using bacteriological, serological, and tissue culture techniques. Detection of virulence genes was performed by PCR. Results: Overall, 316 isolates of E. coli were recovered from 62.3% cattle, 19.6% local chicken, 10.1% goats, 4.1% broiler, 2.9% layers, and 0.9% cockerels. Of the non-sorbitol fermenting E. coli phenotype selected from the isolates, 13.3% were presumptively identified as O157 serotype based on inability to ferment sorbitol on sorbitol MacConkey agar (SMAC). Serotyping using commercial kits capable of detecting O157 and non-O157STEC confirmed 6.6% of these as O157 comprising 4.1% from cattle and 2.5% from local chicken. Only 4.7% of the strains were serologically confirmed as non-O157 of which 0.9% was from cattle, 3.2% from goat and 0.6% from local chicken. Verocytotoxicity test and the presence of virulence genes stx1, stx2 and eae assayed by PCR showed the complete absence of virulence genes in the 13 serologically confirmed strains of O157 from cattle. The virulence gene stx1 was detected only in non-O157 strain from goat and local chickens. Conclusion: This study has shown that the prevalence of E. coli O157 is low in food animals in the study area compared to reports from the developed countries. Furthermore, our study is the first to report the isolation of non-O157STEC in goat, a very common domestic animal, in the study area.

Plasmid-mediated fluoroquinolone-resistance qnrA and qnrB genes among Escherichia coli from cattle in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria / Genes qnrA y qnrB de la resistencia a la fluoroquinolona mediada por plásmidos entre las bacterias Escherichia coli del ganado en Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

OBJECTIVE: This is to investigate the implication of fluoroquinolone usage in veterinary practice and the food chain system. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Five hundred isolates of commensal E coli were recovered from the faeces of apparently healthy cattle in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. The susceptibility of the bacteria was tested using standard laboratory procedures. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out to detect the presence of qnrA and qnrB genes, which were selected on the basis of their fluoroquinolone-resistant patterns. RESULTS: The agar disc diffusion technique revealed that the representative isolates showed multiple fluoroquinolone-resistance and this formed the basis for their selection for PCR amplification. The PCR revealed that ten of the 17 quinolone-resistant representative isolates showed distinct bands which are specific for the qnrB gene; in addition, only one strain of the 20 representative isolates of commensal E coli carried plasmids on which the qnrA gene was detected. CONCLUSION: This study has confirmed that plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance is a possible mechanism among the fluoroquinolone-resistant commensal E coli isolated from faeces of apparently healthy cattle in the study location.

OBJETIVO: El propósito de este trabajo es investigar las implicaciones del uso de las fluoroquinolonas en la práctica veterinaria y el sistema de la cadena alimentaría. SUJETOS Y MÉTODOS: Quinientos aislados de E Coli comensales fueron obtenidos de las heces de ganado ostensiblemente sano en Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Se sometió a prueba la susceptibilidad de las bacterias usando los procedimientos de laboratorio normales. Se llevó a cabo una reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (RCP) a fin de detectar la presencia de genes qnrA y qnrB, los cuales fueron seleccionados sobre la base de sus patrones de resistencia a la fluoroquinolona. RESULTADOS: La técnica de difusión con disco en agar reveló que los aislados representativos mostraban resistencia múltiple a la fluoroquinolona, lo cual constituyó la base para su selección a fin de amplificar la RCP. La RCP reveló que 10 de cada 17 asilados representativos de la resistencia a la quinolona, mostraban bandas claramente específicas del gen qnrB. Además, sólo una cepa de 20 aislados representativos de las E Coli portaba plásmidos en los que el gen qnrA fue detectado. CONCLUSIÓN: Este estudio confirmó que la resistencia a la quinolona mediada por plásmidos, es un posible mecanismo entre las E Coli comensales aisladas de la haces del ganado sano en la localidad del estudio.