From Virtue to Norm: Ethical Thinking on the Construction of Harmonious Doctor-patient Relationship / 中国医学伦理学

Virtue ethics and normative ethics are corresponding ethical concepts, and their collision and integration promote the development of ethical system. On the issue of doctor-patient relationship, from virtue to norm is the objective requirement of social transformation and development, and is also the inevitable choice to resolve doctor-patient conflicts and reshape doctor-patient relationships. In the new era, the construction of doctor-patient relationship faces ethical dilemma such as one-sided emphasis on doctors’ virtue cultivation, unclear ethical responsibilities between doctors and patients, and lack of trust and tolerance between doctors and patients. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the institutionalization of doctor ethics, clarify the ethical responsibilities of both doctors and patients, optimize the social ethical ecological environment, so as to realize the ethical reconstruction of doctor-patient relationship from virtue to norm.

Ethical and legal implications of gene editing in plant breeding: a systematic literature review / 浙江大学学报（英文版）（B辑：生物医学和生物技术）

Biotechnology policies and regulations must be revised and updated to reflect the most recent advances in plant-breeding technology. New Plant Breeding Techniques (NPBT) such as gene editing have been applied to address the myriad of challenges in plant breeding, while the use of NPBT as emerging biotechnological tools raises legal and ethical concerns. This study aims to highlight how gene editing is operationalized in the existing literature and examine the critical issues of ethical and legal issues of gene editing for plant breeding. We carried out a systematic literature review (SLR) to provide the current states of ethical and legal discourses surrounding this topic. We also identified critical research priority areas and policy gaps that must be addressed when designing the future governance of gene editing in plant breeding.

Ethics and professionalism of a community health worker: A virtue ethics approach

Community health workers are the link between the community and the health system, delivering primary care services at the frontline. Every profession has its own ethics and professional values, and there is a need to formulate the ethics of community health work which should be informed by their rich experiential wisdom. In one such effort, we interviewed a senior community health worker in the Tamil Nadu health system and present it here as a virtue ethics case study. Several situations of ethical conflict arising in her work, and her process for resolving these conflicts were discussed during the interview. The worker discussed some ethical principles: doing good, not doing any harm, maintaining justice, being honest, providing respectful care, maintaining self-respect, being accessible, earning the community's trust, and building solidarity. This interview confirms the assumption that ethics and professionalism are inherent in this community health worker, and emphasises the need for systematic research to document the experiences of such frontline workers, and to frame relevant standards of ethics and professionalism in the local context.

Ethical Implication of Virtue Ethics in "Red Doctors’ Spirit" / 中国医学伦理学

The red doctors’ spirit is a unique medical ethics thought in China, which is an ideological system contains many elements such as belief, moral sentiment and technical requirements. The red doctors’ spirit contains profound moral and ethical thoughts. From the perspective of Marxist virtue ethics, it conforms to the Marxist revolutionary heroism virtue view, takes the all-round and free development of human beings as the highest goodness, and advocates striving and dedicating to realize this goodness. From the perspective of western traditional virtue ethics, the red doctors’ spirit accords with the definition of ethical virtue in virtue theory. In particular, the assertion about "happiness" can provide an interpretation basis for its characteristics of "the more arduous the environment is, the more stimulated it can be". From the perspective of Confucian virtue ethics, the red doctors’ spirit is greatly influenced by the ethical requirements of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, courage and moral integrity, not fearing life and death, and martyrdom. The value of "virtue" of red doctor lies in the motivation of pursuing "perfection", which enables the practitioners to have more powerful moral self-discipline and emotional motivation than ordinary medical personnel, constantly transcend themselves, and protect people’s life safety and health.

Ética e cuidado humanizado em Saúde Mental: percepções dos profissionais de enfermagem / Ethics and humanizing health care in mental health: from nursing professionals' perspective

Estudo exploratório, descritivo de abordagem qualitativa, que teve por objetivo compreender como os profissionais que atuam no campo da saúde mental percebem a ética e o cuidado humanizado na sua prática profissional, a partir do referencial da Ética das Virtudes (EV), conforme a proposta de Pellegrino e Thomasma (1993). Foram entrevistados 21 profissionais da equipe de enfermagem, entre eles auxiliares e técnicos de enfermagem e enfermeiros de um hospital psiquiátrico situado no interior do estado de São Paulo. As entrevistas foram gravadas em mídia digital, com o consentimento dos participantes e posteriormente transcritas, os dados foram analisados através do método de Análise de Conteúdo de Bardin (2016) emergiram as categorias 8.2.1 Significados atribuídos a ética; 8.2.2 Percepções sobre situações que envolvam ética na oferta do cuidado; 8.2.3 Significados atribuídos a cuidado humanizado; 8.2.4 Percepções sobre situações que envolvam cuidado humanizado. Dessas categorias despontaram 10 subcategorias, dentre essas destacaram-se 8.2.1.1 Sigilo Profissional, que para o grupo pesquisado é associado ao termo " ética" e associado ao respeito e a confiança na relação profissional-paciente; 8.2.1.3 Hábitos e virtudes e 8.2.2.2 Virtudes subcategorias estas onde os profissionais trouxeram práticas éticas alicerçadas em virtudes; 8.2.2.1 Violência, onde foram expressadas situações que caracterizam o cuidado como não ético; 8.2.3.2 Empatia entendida pelos entrevistados como um fator afetivo essencial na prática do cuidado humanizado e a subcategoria 8.2.4.1 Vínculo que também está relacionado com a empatia, a percepção dos profissionais é que este laço deve ser construído com base na confiança. Foi evidenciado que o termo " ética" foi eminentemente associado a situações negativas enquanto o termo "cuidado humanizado", está relacionado majoritariamente a situações positivas

Exploratory research, employing qualitative descriptive approach, aimed to understand how mental health professionals perceive ethics and humanizing health care in their practice, based on The Virtues in Medical Practice proposed by Pellegrino and Thomasma (1993). 21 nursing professionals (including nurses and nursing assistants) from a psychiatric hospital in the state of São Paulo were interviewed. The interviews were consentingly recorded in electronic devices and transcribed. The Bardin's Content Analysis method (2016) were applied to the data and the following categories emerged 8.2.1 Meanings attributed to ethics; 8.2.2 Perceptions of situations involving ethics in the provision of care; 8.2.3 Meanings attributed to humanizing health care, and 8.2.4 Perceptions of situations involving humanizing health care. 10 subcategories came out from these categories, bringing attention to 8.2.1.1 Professional Secrecy, which is associated with ethics, respect and trust in the professional-patient relationship, according to the group studied; 8.2.1.3 Habits and virtues; 8.2.2.2 Subcategories of virtues where the professionals mentioned ethical practices based on virtues; 8.2.2.1 Violence, where situations were characterized as unethical care; 8.2.3.2 Empathy as an essential affective factor to humanizing health care, according to the interviewees, and 8.2.4.1 Connection also associated with empathy, which from the professionals' perspective, must be based on trust. It was found that the term "ethics" is usually associated with negative situations while the term "humanizing health care" is mostly associated with positive ones

"Analyze SUN Simiao's Virtue Ethics——Take ""Great Medical Sincerity"" as an Example" / 中国医学伦理学

In the article of Great Medical Sincerity,Sun Simiao's discussion of the medical ethics and medical skill reflected the characteristics of his virtue ethics—the integration of internal training and external training.Internal training makes the request for the quality of doctor from the internal subjective mind.External training is specification for external behavior of internal culture.The effective integration of these two aspects reflects Sun Simiao's positive life value which unifies individual life and social life.

Comunicação de más notícias em saúde: contribuições à discussão bioética através de uma nova ética das virtudes

Este trabalho compreende uma pesquisa teórica através de revisão bibliográfica narrativa. O objeto desta pesquisa foi a comunicação de más notícias em saúde, no âmbito da relação médico-paciente. Utilizando o instrumental teórico disponível no campo da Bioética, procurou-se responder à questão teórica acerca das contribuições possíveis de uma nova teoria ética baseada nas virtudes de caráter do agente moral para a discussão sobre comunicação de más notícias em saúde, e também para a própria Bioética. A teoria ética das virtudes da filósofa neozelandesa Christine Swanton, fundamentada a partir de conceitos importantes da filosofia de Nietzsche, mostrou-se útil quando aplicada ao debate ético na relação médico-paciente. Também foi possível utilizar esta formulação teórica na ponderação sobre a situação de comunicação de más notícias em saúde, a partir da articulação com um caso clínico discutido no âmbito da bioética. Por fim, a Ética das Virtudes Pluralista de Swanton demonstrou ser capaz de oferecer contribuições aos debates éticos no campo da Bioética, ratificando nossa hipótese inicial.

This work comprises a theoretical research through narrative bibliographic review. The object of this research was breaking bad news in health care, within the scope of the doctor-patient relationship. Using the theoretical tools available in the field of Bioethics, we sought to answer the theoretical question about the possible contributions of a new ethical theory based on the moral agent's character virtues to the discussion about breaking bad news in health care, and also to the own Bioethics. The ethical theory of virtues of the New Zealand philosopher Christine Swanton, grounded on important concepts of Nietzsche's philosophy, has proved useful when applied to the ethical debate in the doctor-patient relationship. It was also possible to use this theoretical formulation in the weighting on the situation of breaking of bad news in health care, based on the articulation with a clinical case discussed within bioethics scope. Finally, Swanton's Pluralistic Virtue Ethics proved to be able to offer contributions to ethical debates in the field of Bioethics, ratifying our initial hypothesis.

METODOLOGÍA PARA EL ANÁLISIS DE CASOS CLÍNICOS EN LOS COMITÉS DE BIOÉTICA: ENFOQUES Y PROPUESTAS DE APOYO / METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING CLINICAL CASES IN BIOETHICS COMMITTEES: APPROACHES AND PROPOSED SUPPORT / METODOLOGIA PARA A ANÁLISE DE CASOS CLÍNICOS NOS COMITÊS DE BIOÉTICA: ENFOQUES E PROPOSTA DE APOIO

El presente trabajo examina y evalúa los modelos y las metodologías más importantes para la resolución de casos clínicos: 1) el principialismo, 2) el deontologismo, 3) el consecuencialismo, 4) la casuística, 5) la ética de la virtud y 6) la ética centrada en la persona (o ética "personalista"). Se sopesan las fortalezas y debilidades de cada una y se propone, además, un instrumento que facilite este tipo de análisis. Como grupo, se opta por una metodología que articula tres modelos: el enfoque de la virtud, el enfoque centrado en la persona y estos dos en armonía con una ética centrada en los principios. Las razones para esta opción integral están basadas, fundamentalmente, en el reconocimiento de la supremacía de la dignidad de la persona humana y de que las situaciones clínicas complejas requieren de una mirada integral tanto de la persona como de la práctica clínica. Esta última requiere de virtudes, principios éticos y del reconocimiento del ser humano como un ser dotado de dignidad intrínseca y, a su vez, como fundamento de la ética y de la práctica clínica.

This paper examines and evaluates the models and the most important methods for solving clinical cases; namely, 1) principlism, 2) deontologism, 3) consequentialism, 4) casuistry, 5) virtue ethics and 6) ethics centered on the person (or "personalist" ethics). The strengths and weaknesses of each are weighed and an instrument is proposed to facilitate this type of analysis. As a group, the preference is for a methodology that articulates three models: the virtue approach, the person-centered approach, and these two in harmony with an ethics centered on principles. The reasons for this comprehensive option are based primarily on recognition of the primacy of the dignity of the human person and on acknowledgement that complex clinical situations require a comprehensive view of both the person and clinical practice. The latter requires virtues, ethical principles and recognition of the human person as being endowed with inherent dignity and, in turn, as the foundation of ethics and clinical practice.

Este trabalho examina e avalia os modelos e as metodologias mais importantes para a resolução de casos clínicos: 1) o principialismo; 2) a deontologia; 3) o consequencialismo; 4) a casuística; 5) a ética da virtude e 6) a ética centralizada na pessoa (ou ética "personalista"). Consideram-se as fortalezas e as debilidades de cada uma e propõe-se, além disso, um instrumento que facilite esse tipo de análise. Como grupo, opta-se por uma metodologia que articula três modelos: o enfoque da virtude, o enfoque centralizado na pessoa e esses dois em harmonia com uma ética focada nos princípios. As razões para essa opção integral estão baseadas, fundamentalmente, no reconhecimento da supremacia da dignidade da pessoa humana e de que as situações clínicas complexas requerem de um olhar integral tanto da pessoa quanto da prática clínica. Esta última exige virtudes, princípios éticos e reconhecimento do ser humano como um ser dotado de dignidade intrínseca e, por sua vez, como fundamento da ética e da prática clínica.

Discussion on the Modern Significance of Moral Wisdom of Chinese Traditional Philosophy to Carry Forward the Lofty Life Ethics / 中国医学伦理学

Faced with the special object of the existence of human life, medical cognition and practice not only need the scientific and rational thinking of the relation between subject and object, but also need the ethical think-ing of inter subjectivity, especially moral self-consciousness. It should pay attention to the effect of virtue ethics on the normative ethics. Chinese traditional moral wisdom is good at trans-positional thinking using virtue ethics of the relationship between you and me. This thinking wisdom is value to enriching, perfecting the normative ethics, constructing modern life ethics value system, and so on.

Corporate Governance in India “Evolution and Challenges”.

While recent high-profile corporate governance failures in developed countries have brought the subject to media attention, the issue has always been central to finance and economics. The issue is particularly important for developing countries since it is central to financial and economic development. Recent research has established that financial development is largely dependent on investor protection in a country – de jure and de facto. With the legacy of the English legal system, India has one of the best corporate governance laws but poor implementation together with socialistic policies of the performer has affected corporate governance. Concentrated ownership of shares, pyramiding and tunneling of funds among group companies mark the Indian corporate landscape. Boards of directors have frequently been silent spectators with Department of financial institutions’ nominee directors unable or unwilling to carry out their monitoring functions. Since liberalization, serious efforts have been directed at overhauling the system with the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) instituting the Clause 49 of the Listing Agreements dealing with corporate governance. Corporate governance of Indian banks is also undergoing a process of change with a move towards more market-based governance.

The Ethics of Virtues in Medical Professional Moral / 中国医学伦理学

Normative ethics is an important ethic theory that has been applied in contemporary medical ethics as principles and rules.Normative ethics can guide the doctors and the nurses to do a right behavior in medical practice effectively,but at the same time it has some limitation.Those limitation are mainly about a conflict from different moral norms and a demand for too perfect moral realm,which make the doctors and the nurses often meet a moral dilemma,and sometimes their working enthusiasm would be dampened.Virtues ethics is a different ethic theory that has some advantage such as consistence,stability and flexibility,so it can give us a more wide space of mind to perfect our medical moral theory.If we wish benevolence,justice and other virtues come true widely in medical practice,we should to rethink our professional moral education and to set a series of good rules and regulations.I believe our country's doctors and nurses would take shape a prevalent professional virtue when virtue ethics have been accepted as a important ethic theory.