Effect of COVID-19-restrictive measures on ambient particulate matter pollution in Yangon, Myanmar

BACKGROUND@#Particulate matter (PM) is recognized as the most harmful air pollutant to the human health. The Yangon city indeed suffers much from PM-related air pollution. Recent research has interestingly been focused on the novel subject of changes in the air quality associated with the restrictive measures in place during the current coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The first case of COVID-19 in Myanmar was diagnosed on March 23, 2020. In this article, we report on our attempt to evaluate any effects of the COVID-19-restrictive measures on the ambient PM pollution in Yangon.@*METHODS@#We measured the PM concentrations every second for 1 week on four occasions at three study sites with different characteristics; the first occasion was before the start of the COVID-19 pandemic and the remaining three occasions were while the COVID-19-restrictive measures were in place, including Stay-At-Home and Work-From-Home orders. The Pocket PM@*RESULTS@#The results showed that there was a significant reduction (P < 0.001) in both the PM@*CONCLUSIONS@#We concluded that the restrictive measures which were in effect to combat the COVID-19 pandemic had a positive impact on the ambient PM concentrations. The changes in the PM concentrations are considered to be largely attributable to reduction in anthropogenic emissions as a result of the restrictive measures, although seasonal influences could also have contributed in part. Thus, frequent, once- or twice-weekly Stay-At-Home or Telework campaigns, may be feasible measures to reduce PM-related air pollution. When devising such an action plan, it would be essential to raise the awareness of public about the health risks associated with air pollution and create a social environment in which Telework can be carried out, in order to ensure active compliance by the citizens.

Preliminary monitoring of concentration of particulate matter (PM) in seven townships of Yangon City, Myanmar

BACKGROUND@#Airborne particulate pollution is more critical in the developing world than in the developed countries in which industrialization and urbanization are rapidly increased. Yangon, a second capital of Myanmar, is a highly congested and densely populated city. Yet, there is limited study which assesses particulate matter (PM) in Yangon currently. Few previous local studies were performed to assess particulate air pollution but most results were concerned PM alone using fixed monitoring. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess distribution of PM in different townships of Yangon, Myanmar. This is the first study to quantify the regional distribution of PM in Yangon City.@*METHODS@#The concentration of PM was measured using Pocket PM Sensor (Yaguchi Electric Co., Ltd., Miyagi, Japan) three times (7:00 h, 13:00 h, 19:00 h) for 15 min per day for 5 days from January 25 to 29 in seven townships. Detailed information of eight tracks for PM pollution status in different areas with different conditions within Kamayut Township were also collected.@*RESULTS@#The results showed that in all townships, the highest PM concentrations in the morning followed by the evening and the lowest concentrations in the afternoon were observed. Among the seven townships, Hlaingtharyar Township had the highest concentrations (164 ± 52 μg/m) in the morning and (100 ± 35 μg/m) in the evening. Data from eight tracks in Kamayut Township also indicated that PM concentrations varied between different areas and conditions of the same township at the same time.@*CONCLUSION@#Myanmar is one of the few countries that still have to establish national air quality standards. The results obtained from this study are useful for the better understanding of the nature of air pollution linked to PM. Moreover, the sensor which was used in this study can provide real-time exposure, and this could give more accurate exposure data of the population especially those subpopulations that are highly exposed than fixed station monitoring.

Alcohol consumption among adult males in urban area of Thanlyin Township, Yangon Region, Myanmar.

Background: Alcohol consumption is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. It is frequently related to health and behavioural problems as well as socio-economic hardship. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors of alcohol consumption among adult males residing in urban area of Thanlyin Township, Yangon Region. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 380 adult males. Multi-stage random sampling was applied. Data entry and analysis was done using Stata 11.0 statistical package. Results: The prevalence of current alcohol drinking, ex-drinking and never drinking were 20.5%, 9.0% and 70.5%, respectively. There was a significant decreasing trend of alcohol consumption across the levels of age-group. Age, education status and practicing other health-risk behaviours such as smoking and betel chewing were detected as significant risk factors of alcohol consumption. Ever smokers and ever betel chewers were about 4 times more likely to be ever alcohol user compared to their counterparts even if age and education level were adjusted. By controlling smoking and betel chewing habits, 79.2% and 76.6% of existing prevalence of alcohol consumption among respondents would be reduced, respectively. Conclusions: There is an urgent need to curb the habit of alcohol consumption among adult males living in urban area, especially young adults. Alcohol and tobacco control policies in Myanmar should be strengthened or reinforced. Tobacco control program also needs to be intensified. Health education and health promotion activities should be enhanced in order to reduce alcohol consumption in the country.

Current tobacco use among adults: a community-based study in urban area of Thanlyin township, Yangon region, Myanmar.

Background: The identification, prevention and control of the common risk factors are the basic element in prevention and control of NCDs. However, the paucity of information on risk factors is one of the major challenges in the prevention and control of these diseases. The use of tobacco is one of the main risk factors of major NCDs. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the prevalence, and socioeconomic and demographic determinants of current tobacco use among adults residing in urban area of Thanlyin Township, Yangon Region. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 468 adults. Multi-stage random sampling was applied. Data entry and analysis was done using Stata 11.0 statistical package. Results: The prevalence of current smoking, current use of smokeless tobacco and current tobacco use were 27.6%, 35.7% and 48.1%, respectively. Age, sex, marital status and occupation were significantly associated with both current smoking and current use of smokeless tobacco. There was a significant decreasing trend of current smokeless tobacco use across the levels of education. Besides, age, sex, education and occupation were detected as significant determinants of current tobacco use. Conclusions: There is an urgent need to curb the use of tobacco in urban area, especially among males and young adults. Tobacco control policy in Myanmar should be strengthened or reinforced to reduce tobacco consumption in the country. Education status of the population should also be improved.

Effectiveness, safety and acceptability of the method of visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and cryotherapy based single-visit approach to cervical cancer prevention (CCP) in Kungyangon Township, Yangon Region, Myanmar.

Cervical cancer is the second most frequent cancer occurring among the women in Myanmar. Being a preventable cancer, it is crucial to have an organized screening program in place that uses simple, practical and cost effective technology so as to ensure that the screening services have a wide coverage and it is universally accessible. The aim of this study is to fi nd out the effectiveness, safety and acceptability of the method of visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and cryotherapy based single-visit approach for use in cervical cancer prevention (CCP) programmes in Myanmar. The study is a descriptive community-based study conducted from July 2013 to October 2014. A well trained central CCP mobile team from Central Women’s Hospital (CWH) of the University of Medicine 1 visited Kungyangon Township fortnightly during the weekends to carry out the study. During the 6 visits undertaken by the team, 1,617 married women between the ages of 30 - 49 years were screened for cervical cancer using VIA method. The screening coverage achieved was 8.97%. The VIA tests were positive in 121 women and the screening positive rate was 7.5%. Cryotherapy was given to 119 eligible women after proper counseling. The treatment rate was 98.35%. Two women needed loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) surgery. Another two women had invasive cancer on screening. Watery vaginal discharge for 2 to 3 weeks after cryotherapy was the only symptoms reported at the time of one month follow-up. At the time of 1 year follow-up visit, the defaulter rate was 13.45% and 3 women had persistent VIA positive lesions. The overall cure rate was 97.09%. Twenty local basic health staff (BHS) were trained during screening visits of the Central CCP team. A local CCP team was also formed to sustain the screening program at the community level. All women that participated in the study were happy with the single-visit approach and they have been supported by their husbands in their efforts to obtain treatment. In addition, it was found that the women undergoing cryotherapy successfully adhered to home-care instructions prescribed by the CCP team. The study has shown that the screen and treat single-visit approach can be successfully implemented and expanded to other areas so that a universal coverage can be obtained to control cervical cancer in Myanmar.

Larval Gnathostoma spinigerum Detected in Asian Swamp Eels, Monopterus albus, Purchased from a Local Market in Yangon, Myanmar

The present study was performed to determine the infection status of swamp eels with Gnathostoma sp. larvae in Myanmar. We purchased total 37 Asian swamp eels, Monopterus albus, from a local market in Yangon in June and December 2013 and 2014. All collected eels were transferred with ice to our laboratory and each of them was examined by the artificial digestion technique. A total of 401 larval gnathostomes (1-96 larvae/eel) were detected in 33 (89.2%) swamp eels. Most of the larvae (n=383; 95.5%) were found in the muscle. The remaining 18 larvae were detected in the viscera. The advanced third-stage larvae (AdL3) were 2.3-4.4 mm long and 0.25-0.425 mm wide. The characteristic head bulb (0.093 x 0.221 mm in average size) with 4 rows of hooklets, muscular long esophagus (1.025 mm), and 2 pairs of cervical sacs (0.574 mm) were observed by light microscopy. The average number of hooklets in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th rows was 41, 45, 48, and 51, respectively. As scanning electron microscopic findings, the characteristic 4-5 rows of hooklets on the head bulb, a cervical papilla, tegumental spines regularly arranged in the transverse striations, and an anus were well observed. Based on these morphological characters, they were identified as the AdL3 of Gnathostoma spinigerum. By the present study, it has been confirmed for the first time that Asian swamp eels, M. albus, from Yangon, Myanmar are heavily infected with G. spinigerum larvae.

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY OF INFLUENZA VIRUS INFECTIONS IN YANGON, MYANMAR

Although influenza is a highly contagious acute respiratory illness of global importance, little is known about the disease in tropical countries. An influenza survey was conducted in three sentinel sites in Yangon, Myanmar from September 2003 to December 2004. Throat or nasal swabs were collected from 616 patients with influenza-like symptoms and tested using rapid diagnostic test kits and virus isolation. Influenza B virus was detected in 6 patients from September to October, 2003. Influenza A viruses were detected in 133 patients from June to September, 2004, and the 51 influenza A viruses isolated from 72 specimens were all A⁄H3N2. Influenza virus infections occurred mainly in the rainy season in Yangon, Myanmar, but continuous ongoing influenza surveillance is needed.