Effects of simultaneous exposure to stress and nicotine on nicotine-induced locomotor activation in adolescent and adult rats

Preclinical studies have shown that repeated stress experiences can result in an increase in the locomotor response to the subsequent administration of drugs of abuse, a phenomenon that has been termed behavioral cross-sensitization. Behavioral sensitization reflects neuroadaptive processes associated with drug addiction and drug-induced psychosis. Although cross-sensitization between stress- and drug-induced locomotor activity has been clearly demonstrated in adult rats, few studies have evaluated this phenomenon in adolescent rats. In the present study, we determined if the simultaneous exposure to stress and nicotine was capable of inducing behavioral sensitization to nicotine in adolescent and adult rats. To this end, adolescent (postnatal day (P) 28-37) and adult (P60-67) rats received nicotine (0.4 mg/kg, sc) or saline (0.9 percent NaCl, sc) and were immediately subjected to restraint stress for 2 h once a day for 7 days. The control group for stress was undisturbed following nicotine or saline injections. Three days after the last exposure to stress and nicotine, rats were challenged with a single dose of nicotine (0.4 mg/kg, sc) or saline and nicotine-induced locomotion was then recorded for 30 min. In adolescent rats, nicotine caused behavioral sensitization only in animals that were simultaneously exposed to stress, while in adult rats nicotine promoted sensitization independently of stress exposure. These findings demonstrate that adolescent rats are more vulnerable to the effects of stress on behavioral sensitization to nicotine than adult rats.

Curso temporal dos efeitos da exposição combinada de nicotina e etanol no sistema colinérgico cerebral durante adolescência / Time course of the effects of combined exposure to nicotine and ethanol in the brain cholinergic system during adolescence

O etanol e a nicotina são as drogas mais comumente usadas no mundo. Como claramente indicado por estudos epidemiológicos, existe uma forte associação entre o tabagismo e o consumo de etanol principalmente durante o período da adolescência. Entretanto, existem poucos estudos em neurobiologia básica que avaliem o efeito da exposição combinada de nicotina e etanol durante o período da adolescência. Considerando que a nicotina é um agonista do receptor colinérgico nicotínico (nAChR) e que tem sido demonstrado que o etanol interage com os nAChRs, o presente trabalho tem como foco o estudo dos efeitos da exposição à nicotina e/ou ao etanol no sistema colinérgico durante a adolescência. Do 30º ao 45º dia pós-natal (PN) camundongos da cepa C57BL/6 foram expostos à nicotina (NIC) e/ou etanol (ETOH). Quatro grupos foram analisados: 1) exposição concomitante (NIC+ETOH) à solução de nicotina (50ug/ml) e etanol (25%, 2g/kg i.p. em dias alternados), 2) exposição a NIC, 3) exposição ao ETOH, 4) exposição ao veículo. Foram quantificadas a expressão/afinidade do [3H] hemicolinium-3 (HC-3) ao transportador de alta afinidade présinaptico de colina, ao final da exposição (PN45), após curto (PN50) e longo período de retirada (PN75). Ao final da exposição, o grupo NIC+ETOH apresentou upregulation de nAChRs, refletindo simples somação dos efeitos da NIC e ETOH no córtex cerebral e sinergismo no mesencéfalo. A upregulation devido à exposição combinada foi mantida mesmo após alguns dias de retirada das drogas. Um mês após o término da exposição, os valores foram semelhantes aos obtidos para os animais veículo. Em PN45, machos NIC apresentaram aumento da ChAT no córtex cerebral, mas o ETOH foi capaz de reverter este efeito. Ao contrário, fêmeas NIC apresentaram diminuição da ChAT. No mesencéfalo, somente ETOH promoveu aumento da ChAT. Já em PN50, o grupo NIC apresentou aumento na ChAT que foi revertido na retirada combinada de NIC+ETOH. Em PN75, o grupo NIC+ETOH...

Nicotine and ethanol are the most commonly consumed drugs. As clearly indicated by epidemiological studies, there is a close interrelationship between smoking and alcohol consumption manly during adolescence period. However, there are few studies on the basic neurobiology of the effects of the combined nicotine and ethanol exposure in the adolescent brain. Since nicotine is a cholinergic agonist and it has been shown that ethanol interferes with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR), the current proposal will focus on the cholinergic effects of nicotine and/or ethanol treatment during adolescence. From the 30th to the 45th postnatal day (PN), C57BL/6 mice were exposed to nicotine free base (NIC) and/or ethanol (ETOH). Four groups were analyzed: 1) concomitant (NIC+ETOH) exposure of nicotine (50 ug/ml) and ethanol (25%, 2 g/kg i.p. every other day); 2) NIC exposure; 3) ETOH exposure; 4) vehicle. We assessed nAChR (alfa4beta2) binding, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity and [3H] hemicholinium-3 (HC-3) binding to the high affinity presynaptic choline transporter at the end of exposure period (PN45), at short (PN50) and long term (PN75) withdrawal. At the end of exposure period, NIC+ETOH elicited a pronounced upregulation which reflect simple additivity of the effects of nicotine and ethanol in the cerebral cortex and synergism in the midbrain. On PN45, male NIC mice presented an increase in ChAT in the cerebral cortex. However, ETOH reversed this effect. In contrast, female NIC mice presented decreased ChAT activity. In the midbrain, ETOH increased ChAT. On PN50, NIC mice presented an increase in ChAT activity that was reversed by ETOH withdrawal. In addition, NIC+ETOH long term withdrawal elicited a decrease in ChAT activity. Regarding HC-3, binding was not affected on PN45. ETOH and NIC+ETOH withdrawal promoted a decrease at short and long-term withdrawal. These results provide experimental evidences that nicotine and ethanol during adolescence...

Association of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors with central respiratory control in isolated brainstem-spinal cord preparation of neonatal rats

Nicotine exposure is a risk factor in several breathing disorders Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) exist in the ventrolateral medulla, an important site for respiratory control. We examined the effects of nicotinic acetylcholine neurotransmission on central respiratory control by addition of a nAChR agonist or one of various antagonists into superfusion medium in the isolated brainstem-spinal cord from neonatal rats. Ventral C4 neuronal activity was monitored as central respiratory output, and activities of respiratory neurons in the ventrolateral medulla were recorded in whole-cell configuration. RJR-2403 (0.1-10mM), a4b2 nAChR agonist induced dose-dependent increases in respiratory frequency. Non-selective nAChR antagonist mecamylamine (0.1-100mM), a4b2 antagonist dihydro-b-erythroidine (0.1-100mM), a7 antagonist methyllycaconitine (0.1-100mM), and a-bungarotoxin (0.01-10mM) all induced dose-dependent reductions in C4 respiratory rate. We next examined effects of 20mM dihydro-b-erythroidine and 20mM methyllycaconitine on respiratory neurons. Dihydro-b-erythroidine induces hyperpolarization and decreases intraburst firing frequency of inspiratory and preinspiratory neurons. In contrast, methyllycaconitine has no effect on the membrane potential of inspiratory neurons, but does decrease their intraburst firing frequency while inducing hyperpolarization and decreasing intraburst firing frequency in preinspiratory neurons. These findings indicate that a4b2 nAChR is involved in both inspiratory and preinspiratory neurons, whereas a7 nAChR functions only in preinspiratory neurons to modulate C4 respiratory rate.

Melatonin modulation of presynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located on short noradrenergic neurons of the rat vas deferens: a pharmacological characterization

Melatonin, the pineal hormone produced during the dark phase of the light-dark cycle, modulates neuronal acetylcholine receptors located presynaptically on nerve terminals of the rat vas deferens. Recently we showed the presence of high affinity nicotine-binding sites during the light phase, and low and high affinity binding sites during the dark phase. The appearance of the low affinity binding sites was due to the nocturnal melatonin surge and could be mimicked by exposure to melatonin in vitro. The aim of the present research was to identify the receptor subtypes responsible for the functional response during the light and the dark phase. The rank order of potency of agonists was dimethylphenylpiperazinium (DMPP) = cytisine > nicotine > carbachol and DMPP = nicotine = cytisine > carbachol, during the light and dark phase, respectively, due to an increase in apparent affinity for nicotine. Mecamylamine similarly blocked the DMPP response during the light and the dark phase, while the response to nicotine was more efficiently blocked during the light phase. In contrast, methyllycaconitine inhibited the nicotine-induced response only at 21:00 h. Since = 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) have low affinity for nicotine in binding assays, we suggest that a mixed population composed of alpha 3 Beta 4 - plus alpha7-bearing nAChR subtypes is present at night. This plasticity in receptor subtypes is probably driven by melatonin since nicotine-induced contraction in organs from animals sacrificed at 15:00 h and incubated with melatonin (100 pg/ml, 4 h) is not totally blocked by mecamylamine. Thus melatonin, by acting directly on the short adrenergic neurons that innervate the rat vas deferens, induces the appearance of the low affinity binding site, probably an alpha nAChR subtype

Effect of cholinergic agonists on muscular tonus of the lizard small intestine and esophagus

The underlying mechanisms of acetycholine-induced intestinal relaxation in the lizard Liolaemus tenuis tenuis are still unknows. By using a classical model of intestinal recording of isometric contraction and relaxation in conjunction with specific pharmacological tools, this article studies the possible influence of EDRF/NO and nicotinic ganglionar receptors on the Ach-induced relaxation in an effort to elucidate the probable mechanisms involved in ACh effect. It was observed that the relaxation of the lizard intestine elicited by ACh (10(-7) - 4 x 10(-4) M) was not affected by hexametonium (5 x 10(4) M) or tetrodotoxin (10(-6) M). Nicotine (10(-7) to 10(-4) M) induced relaxation was significantly antagonized by hexametonium; however, it was not influenced by tetrodotoxin. These results allow us to discard a neuronal pathway in cholinergic-induced relaxation, suggesting a more direct cholinergic effect on the smooth muscle, perhaps mediated by an unknown substance released by some specialized tissue. N-nitro-L-arginine, used to block NO-synthase and NO production, induced no changes in ACh-induced relaxation. Methylene blue, a soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor, induced no changes in ACh-induced relaxation. These results allow us to dicard a probable role of EDRF/nitric oxide in the ACh-induced relaxation of lizard small intestine, providing evidence that this mechanism could be different from reported on other species.

Nicotine induced ovarian and uterine changes in albino mice.

Nicotine at the dose level of 0.3 mg/100 g body weight was administered to normal cycling mice for 15 days through oral and intraperitoneal routes. At autopsy on 16th day significant reduction in the ovarian and uterine weight was observed. Histological observations showed decrease in the number and size of Graafian follicles, corpora lutea and increase in the atretic follicles in the ovary. The uterus showed absence of endometrial glands, decrease in the height of myometrium, endometrium and its epithelial cells. The total cholesterol content of the ovary and uterus is increased whereas the protein content is decreased. This antagonistic action of nicotine to gonadotrophins is discussed.

Testicular changes due to graded doses of nicotine in albino mice.

Administration of graded doses of nicotine (0.2 mg, 0.4 mg and 0.6 mg/100 g body weight) for 15 days to the adult mice reduced the weight of testis, number of spermatocytes and spermatids, but increased the number of spermatogonia which may be due to reduced conversion to subsequent stages. There is a high cholesterol content and Sudanophilic lipid accumulation in the treated testis. The weight of accessory sex organs which is dependent on androgens produced by the testis is also reduced. These changes are brought because of the non-availability of pituitary gonadotrophins essential for initiation and completion of spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis in the testis due to the administration of nicotine, which being CNS depressor might have caused inhibition in the neural stimulus essential for release of pituitary gonadotrophins.

Cardiac nociception induced rectal response: relation with haemodynamic changes.

Epicardial application of nicotine (200 micrograms/ml) over the left ventricle or occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) in lightly anaesthetised cats resulted a biphasic change in rectal motility-initial relaxation followed by contraction along with biphasic changes of blood pressure (B.P.) with epicardial nicotine and only hypotension with LAD occlusion. Desensitisation of ventricular receptors by epicardial application of 2% lignocaine abolished the rectal response and the biphasic blood pressure response but not the LAD occlusion induced hypotension. Sectioning of left inferior cardiac nerve (LICN) abolished such cardiorectal reflex but not the B.P. changes. Stimulation of central cut end of LICN elicited similar cardiorectal reflex keeping the B.P. unaltered. Atropinization (1 mg/kg) abolished only the contractile phase of the cardiorectal reflex and also the hypotension induced by epicardial nicotine. Intra-arterial NG-nitro-L-Arginine (LNNA) at a dose of 2 mg/kg abolished the relaxation phase of such cardiorectal reflex keeping the B.P. changes unaltered. LAD occlusion induced hypotension was neither counteracted by atropine nor by LNNA pretreatment. These indicate that though the cardio-rectal reflexes are associated with B.P. changes, they do not have any direct correlation.