Seria a pílula anticoncepcional uma droga de "estilo de vida"?: ensaio sobre o atual processo de medicalização da sexualidade / La píldora anticonceptiva, ¿una droga de "estilo de vida"?: Ensayo sobre el proceso actual de medicalización de la sexualidad / The birth control pill as a 'lifestyle drug': on the medicalization of sexuality

Este artigo discute o processo de medicalização da sexualidade, refletindo sobre a pílula anticoncepcional hormonal e sua relação com o conceito de drogas de estilo de vida (entendido como medicamentos utilizados não necessariamente para tratar uma doença, mas para aprimorar a vida das pessoas). A pílula anticoncepcional, lançada em 1957 nos Estados Unidos, foi desde a sua criação destinada à utilização no dia a dia de mulheres saudáveis, e tornou-se um importante símbolo cultural, revolucionando a vida das mulheres e da sociedade em geral. Refletiremos, assim, sobre o surgimento da pílula anticoncepcional e suas transformações. Analisaremos também o atual marketing dos laboratórios farmacêuticos, cujo foco tem sido não tanto no efeito original de controle de natalidade, e mais nos efeitos secundários desejáveis que as novas pílulas poderiam proporcionar - como redução da acne e tratamento de "problemas de humor" relacionados à menstruação - "adequando-se", assim, ao estilo de vida da "mulher moderna".

Este artículo discute el proceso de medicalización de la sexualidad, reflexionando sobre la píldora anticonceptiva hormonal y su relación con el concepto de drogas de estilo de vida (entendido como medicamentos no necesariamente utilizados para tratar una afección, sino para mejorar la vida de las personas). La píldora anticonceptiva, lanzada en Estados Unidos en 1957, desde su creación estuvo destinada al uso cotidiano de mujeres saludables, y se convirtió en un importante símbolo cultural, revolucionando sus vidas y la de la sociedad en su conjunto. En ese sentido, se reflexiona acerca del surgimiento de la píldora anticonceptiva y sus transformaciones. Se analiza también el marketing de los laboratorios farmacéuticos, que ha puesto el foco no tanto en el efecto original de control de la natalidad, sino más bien en los efectos secundarios deseables que las nuevas píldoras podrían proporcionar -como reducción del acné y tratamiento de "problemas de humor" relacionados a la menstruación- "adecuándose" de este modo al estilo de vida de la "mujer moderna".

This article discusses the process of medicalization of sexuality, by focusing on the hormonal birth control pill as a 'lifestyle drug,' i.e., medications that are used to improve people's quality of life, instead of treating illness. The birth control pill, released in the US in 1957, has been destined to everyday use by healthy women since its creation. It has revolutionized their lives and society as a whole, becoming an important cultural symbol. This article addresses the emergence of hormonal contraception and its transformations. The marketing of the pill by pharmaceutical companies has been focused less on birth control than on its desirable side-effects-such as acne reduction and the treatment of 'mood problems' related to menstruation- in a search of greater adequacy to a 'modern woman's' lifestyle.

The German Social Democratic Party(SPD) and the Debate on the Fertility Decline in the German Empire (1870~1918) / 의사학

This paper aimed to examine the debate over the fertility decline in the German Empire, focusing on the role of the SPD. During the German Empire, the fertility rate dramatically declined and the growing awareness of a continuous decline in the birth rate prompted a massive debate among politicians, doctors, sociologists, and feminist activists. The fertility decline was negatively evaluated and generated consciousness of crisis. However, it was not the only way to face this new phenomenon. Indeed, the use of birth control among the upper class was interpreted as a part of a modernizing process. As the same phenomenon reached the working class, it suddenly became a social problem and was attributed to the SPD. The debate over the fertility decline in imperial German society ridden with a fierce class conflict was developed into a weapon against the SPD. Contrary to the assumption of conservative politicians, the SPD had no clear-cut position on this issue. Except for a few politicians like Kautsky and the doctors who came into frequent contact with the workers, the "birth strike" was not listed as the main interest of the SPD. Even Clara Zetkin, the leader of the Social Democratic women's organization viewed it as a concern of the individual person which could not be incorporated in the party program. The women's organization of the SPD put priority on class conflict rather than issues specific to women. As a result, the debate over the birth rate decline within the SPD was not led by the women themselves. There could have been various means to stimulate the birth rate. Improvement in the welfare system, such as tax relief for large families, better housing conditions, and substantial maternity protection, could have been feasible solutions to the demographic crisis. However, Germany chose to respond to this crisis by imposing legal sanctions against birth control. In addition to paragraphs 218-220 of the German criminal law enacted in 1872 which prescribed penal servitude for anyone who had an abortion or people who helped to practice it, Paragraph 184.3 of the civil code was enacted in order to outlaw the advertising, display, and publicizing of contraceptives with an 'indecent' intention, although selling or manufacturing contraceptives was not forbidden. Such a punitive approach was especially preferred by the government and conservative parties because it was easy to implement and "cheap" in comparison with the comprehensive social welfare program. What made the SPD different from other conservative parties was the fact that the SPD opposed the government's attempt to prohibit contraception by means of strengthening a penal code. According to the SPD, it was not only morally unacceptable, but also technically impossible for the government to intervene in family limitation. Moreover, politicians from the SPD criticized that such a punitive policy targeted the working class because the upper echelon of the society could easily evade the ban on contraceptives. However, the SPD did not proceed to draft comprehensive social welfare measures in order to fight the fertility decline. The miserable condition of working class women remained as an invisible social phenomenon even within the SPD. The German women who could not find the proper means to practice contraception were driven to have abortions. Annually, hundreds of the women were accused of practicing abortion and imprisoned. In sum, German society ran about in confusion and did not know how to properly respond to the unprecedented decline in fertility. By defining the fertility decline just as a social disease due to moral decay and influence of socialism, German society lost a chance to rationalize itself. Given that women, the main actors, had no way to take part in the debate over this issue, it is not surprising that German society fought against the symptom of the disease, not against its root.

Eugenics policy and practice in Cuba, Puerto Rico and Mexico

In this comparison of history of eugenics in Cuba, Puerto Rico and Mexico, it is readily evident how adaptable eugenic concepts were to local political, social and cultural contexts. In Mexico, a central concern was to increase and improve the population after the decimation of the revolution. In a majority mestizo and indigenous nation, to which large-scale European immigration was not realistic, 'puériculture' and homiculture approaches had obvious appeal. Eugenic discussion about race also fit into new attempts to understand the essenceof the Mexican nation and to depict mestizos as nation-building stock. Likewise, in Puerto Rico, eugenics was originally a movement of liberals and feminists endorsing a modernizing program, to improve working-class families. Eugenics appealed to some Puerto Ricans because of the potential for reform and improvement of island's population, through heathy reproduction. Yet at the same time, Puerto Rico's colonial relationship with the United States gave great scope for birth control experimentation .

Diecinueve parroquías: planificación familiar católica en el Perú, 1967-1976 / Nineteen parishes: catholic familiar planning in Peru, 1967-1976

El presente texto desarrolla dos argumentos centrales. Primero, la provisión de anticonceptivos orales fue una solución original que permitió armonizar la doutrina católica con la vez más popular convicción de que el control de la natalidad era un asunto de justicia social. Segundo, el programa desarrollado por la Iglesia católica peruana incluyó aspectos educacionales, la promoción del concepto de paternidad responsable y la participación de la familia y la comunidad, en gran medida, por la poca voluntad de los líderes católicos de dejar el control de la natalidad enteramente en manos de las mujeres.

The essential health reform in Chile: a reflection on the 1952 process

The authors claim that the critical health reform in Chilean history was the establishment of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1952. The development of modern Chilean health care since the end of the 19th century is discussed both in terms of the prevailing health situation and the subsequent evolution of institutions and policies, with an emphasis on the social and political conditions that led to the creation of the NHS in 1952. From this analysis and from a comparison of infant mortality rates among Latin American countries during the same period, the authors infer that the 1952 health reform was the social and political benchmark that allowed Chile to exhibit the relatively favorable health situation it still enjoys. Using Cavanaugh's scheme, it is clear that the "first-generation reform" was the reform imposed by the military regime in the early 1980s, which aimed to change the orientation of the health system. Similarly, the "second-generation reform" was that implemented by the democratic administrations of the early 1990s to reverse the harm done by their military predecessors. The rapid aging of the population and the advent of new technologies pose a challenge to the insurance system's coverage capacity and threaten the sustainability of all health systems. The implementation of universal, comprehensive, collective health systems, managed under the most integrated authority political conditions will allow, is emphasized as an appropriate solution for developed and developing countries alike.

Los autores sostienen que la reforma de salud crítica en la historia chilena consistió en el establecimiento del Servicio Nacional de Salud (SNS) en 1952. Se discute el desarrollo de la atención a la salud moderna desde fines del siglo XIX, en términos de la situación de salud imperante y de la evolución de las instituciones y políticas que le siguieron, haciendo énfasis en las condiciones sociales que llevaron a la creación del SNS en 1952. Al analizar y comparar las tasas de mortalidad infantil en países latinoamericanos para el mismo periodo, los autores infieren que la reforma de salud de 1952 fue el hito que permitió a Chile alcanzar la situación relativamente favorable que aún ostenta. Usando el esquema de Cavanaugh, queda claro que la "reforma de primera generación" fue la impuesta por el régimen militar a principios de los ochenta, la cual se proponía reorientar el sistema de salud. De manera similar, la "reforma de segunda generación" fue la implementada por los gobiernos democráticos de principios de los noventa, que trataron de reparar el daño hecho por sus predecesores militares. El envejecimiento acelerado de la población, así como el surgimiento de nuevas tecnologías constituyen un reto para la capacidad de cobertura del sistema de seguros y amenazan la sostenibilidad de todo sistema de salud. Se hace énfasis en que una solución apropiada tanto para países en desarrollo como desarrollados, es la implementación de sistemas de salud universales, integrales y colectivos, administrados por la autoridad más integrada que sea permitida por las condiciones políticas.

Naturalização e medicalização do corpo feminino: o controle social por meio da reprodução / Naturalization and medicalization of the female body: social control through reproduction

Trata-se de pesquisa bibliográfica sobre a recorrência do processo de naturalização como alicerce da medicalização do corpo feminino. Este processo institui uma forma de controle social com base na reprodução biológica, em que padrões de comportamento e diferenças de classe social, raça/etnia são ordenados/redescritos. Assim, se mantém a hegemonia masculina, patriarcal e de classe, e se aprofundam as desigualdades sociais e de gênero. Destaca-se a importância do desenvolvimento e da complexidade da tecnologia - que afastam as classes populares das tomadas de decisão sobre o próprio corpo e a saúde reprodutiva - e da escola sobretudo, em aulas de ciências e educação física para manter e perpetuar a hegemonia burguesa.

This study discusses, through bibliographic research, the recurrence of naturalization as the basis for medicalization of the female body, as a means of social control through biological reproduction, whereby behavioral standards, social class, ethnic and race differences are rearranged/redefined. Through this process male, patriarchal and class predominance is maintained and the rift of social and gender inequalities grow wider. It is important to identify the role of technological developments and its complexities - which do not allow lower-income classes to take decisions in regard to their own bodies and reproductive health - and schooling specially through science and physical education classes whereby upper-class predominance is sustained.

El presente estudio pretende discutir, por medio de investigación bibliográfica, la recurrencia del proceso de naturalización como fundamento de la medicalización del cuerpo femenino. Este proceso instituye una forma de control social con base en la reproducción biológica, en que patrones de comportamiento y diferencias de clase social, de raza/ etnia son ordenados/ redescriptos. Así se mantiene la hegemonía masculina, patriarcal y de clase y se aumentan las desigualdades sociales y de género. Se destaca la importancia del desarrollo y de la complejidad de la tecnología - que distancian a las clases populares de las tomas de decisión sobre el propio cuerpo y la salud reproductiva - y de la escuela - sobre todo en las clases de ciencias y educación física - para mantener y perpetuar la hegemonía burguesa.

Orientación en anticoncepción / Orientation in contraception

La orientación para la anticoncepción es una comunicación de doble vía entre el proveedor de servicio y el usuario,con el fin de facilitar o confirmar la elcción informada para usar o no un metodo anticonceptivo.La orientacion es un servicio que apoya al ejercicio de los derechos de los usuarios de servicios de salud sexual y reproductivos.(au)

Anticoncepción en México / Contraception in Mexico

This is an historic review of contraception in Mexico from 1961 to 2002. It includes a description about prescription and investigation on each contraceptive option.

Aspectos éticos de la contracepción / Ethical aspects of contraception

Presentamos un análisis de la contracepción desde un punto de vista bioético. Em primer lugar, nos introducimos al concepto de la bioética a través de los conceptos que lo rigen y regulan, remarcando el carácter meta-médico del término. Analizamos la historia de la anticoncepción, para luego estudiar los conceptos actuales bioéticos sobre el tema, concluyendo con un "axiograma" necesario para su entendimiento. Una tabla de valores, negativos y positivos sobre el tema cierra el trabajo.