Salt Preference is Linked to Hypertension and not to Aging / A Preferência ao Sal está Relacionada à Hipertensão e não ao Envelhecimento

Abstract Background: Seasoning is one of the recommended strategies to reduce salt in foods. However, only a few studies have studied salt preference changes using seasoning. Objectives: The aim of this study was to compare preference for salty bread, and if seasoning can change preference in hypertensive and normotensive, young and older outpatients. Methods: Outpatients (n = 118) were classified in four groups: older hypertensive subjects (OH) (n = 32), young hypertensive (YH) (n = 25); older normotensive individuals (ON) (n = 28), and young normotensive (YN) (n = 33). First, volunteers random tasted bread samples with three different salt concentrations. After two weeks, they tasted the same types of breads, with seasoning added in all. Blood pressure (BP), 24-hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion (UNaV, UKV) were measured twice. Analysis: Fisher exact test, McNamer's test and ANCOVA. Statistical significance: p < 0.05. Results: Systolic BP, UNaV, and UKV were greater in HO and HY and they had a higher preference for saltier samples than normotensive groups (HO: 71.9%, HY: 56% vs. NO: 25%, NY; 6%, p<0.01). With oregano, hypertensive individuals preferred smaller concentrations of salt, with reduced choice for saltier samples (HO: 71.9% to 21.9%, and HY: 56% to 16%, p = 0.02), NO preferred the lowest salt concentration sample (53.6% vs. 14.3%, p < 0.01), and NY further increased the preference for the lowest one (63.6% vs. 39.4%, p = 0.03). Conclusions: Older and younger hypertensive individuals prefer and consume more salt than normotensive ones, and the seasoned bread induced all groups to choose food with less salt. Salt preference is linked to hypertension and not to aging in outpatients.

Resumo Fundamento: Adicionar temperos aos alimentos é umas das estratégias recomendadas para diminuir a quantidade de sal nos alimentos. No entanto, poucos estudos investigaram alterações na preferência ao sal através do uso de temperos. Objetivos: O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a preferência pelo pão salgado, e até que ponto o uso de temperos pode alterar as preferências dos indivíduos hipertensos e normotensos, pacientes ambulatoriais jovens e idosos. Métodos: Os pacientes ambulatoriais (n = 118) foram classificados em quatro grupos: idosos com hipertensão (IH) (n = 32), jovens hipertensos (JH) (n = 25); indivíduos idosos normotensos (IN) (n = 28), e jovens normotensos (JN) (n = 33). Primeiro, os voluntários provaram amostras aleatórias de pão com três diferentes concentrações de sal. Após duas semanas, eles provaram os mesmos tipos de pão, porém acrescidos de temperos. A pressão arterial (PA), e a excreção urinária de sódio e potássio de 24 horas (UNaV, UKV) foram medidas duas vezes. Análise: Teste exato de Fisher, teste de McNemar e teste ANCOVA. Significância estatística: p < 0,05. Resultados: A PA sistólica e a excreção urinária de sódio e potássio foram maiores nos grupos IH e JH, e eles tiveram maior preferência por amostras mais salgadas quando comparados com os grupos de normotensos (IH: 71,9%, JH: 56% vs. IN: 25%, JN; 6%, p < 0,01). Quando o orégano foi adicionado, a preferência dos indivíduos hipertensos foi pelas amostras com menores concentrações de sal, com uma diminuição da escolha por amostras mais salgadas (IH: 71,9% a 21,9%, e JH: 56% a 16%, p = 0,02); o grupo IN preferiu a amostra com a concentração de sal mais baixa (53,6% vs. 14,3%, p < 0,01) e no grupo JN aumentou ainda mais o número de indivíduos com preferência pela amostra com concentrações mais baixas de sal (63,6% vs. 39,4%, p = 0,03). Conclusões: Os idosos e jovens hipertensos preferem e consomem mais sal do que os normotensos, e o pão adicionado de tempero ajudou todos os grupos a escolher alimentos menos salgados. A preferência ao sal está ligada à hipertensão e não à idade nos pacientes ambulatoriais.

Validation of single measurement of 12-hour urine excretion for estimation of sodium and potassium intake. A longitudinal study

ABSTRACT BACKGROUND: Evaluation of sodium and potassium intake can be carried out using different methods. Biological markers are able to capture intra and inter-individual variability and are used as separate measurements of consumption. The aim of this study was to test the validity of a single measurement of urinary sodium and potassium excretion as representative of habitual intake. DESIGN AND SETTING: Longitudinal study, federal university. METHODS: Food consumption data from a sample of adult university students and public servants (25 to 74 years old) were collected through 24-hour records and 12-hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion at five different times over a one-year period. The dietary data were entered into a nutritional research data software system and the sodium and potassium intakes were estimated. The variables were tested for normal distribution using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. One-way analysis of variance or the Kruskal-Wallis test was used to evaluate means. Correlations between measurements using Pearson or Spearman coefficients were calculated. The degree of agreement between the five measurements was given by the intraclass correlation coefficient. RESULTS: Satisfactory agreement was found between the five measurements of urinary sodium and potassium excretion over a year, with little variability in consumption. CONCLUSION: A single measurement of urinary sodium and potassium accurately estimated the usual average consumption of these electrolytes. This can be used in population-based studies.

Sodium and potassium intake estimated using two methods in the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil) / Consumo de sódio e potássio estimado por dois métodos no Estudo Longitudinal de Saúde do Adulto (ELSA-Brasil)

ABSTRACT CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: Sodium and potassium intake from different food sources is an important issue regarding cardiovascular physiology. Epidemiological assessment of the intake of these electrolytes intake is done through food frequency questionnaires or urinary excretion measurements. Our aim was to compare these methods using a sample of Brazilian civil servants. DESIGN AND SETTING: Cross-sectional baseline evaluation from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health. METHODS: Sodium and potassium intake was obtained using two methods: a semi-quantitative questionnaire including 114 food items; and overnight 12-hour urinary excretion measurement. Sodium and potassium estimates obtained through the questionnaire were adjusted for energy intake using the residual method. Urinary excretion measurements were considered valid if they met three adequacy criteria: collection time, volume and total creatinine excretion. Mean nutrients were estimated, and Spearman correlations were calculated. Sodium and potassium intake was categorized into quintiles, and weighted kappa coefficients and percentage agreement were calculated. The significance level for all tests was 0.05. RESULTS: Data from 15,105 participants were analyzed, and significant differences between mean intakes of sodium (questionnaire: 4.5 ± 1.7 g; urine: 4.2 ± 2.1 g) and potassium (questionnaire: 4.7 ± 1.8 g; urine: 2.4 ± 1 g) were found. Weak agreement was found for sodium (K = 0.18) and potassium (K = 0.16). The percentage disagreement between methods ranged from 41.8 to 44.5%, while exact concordance ranged from 22.1% to 23.9%. CONCLUSIONS: The agreement between the food frequency questionnaire and urinary excretion measurements for assessment of sodium and potassium intakes was modest.

RESUMO CONTEXTO E OBJETIVO: O consumo de sódio e potássio de diferentes fontes alimentares é uma questão importante para a fisiologia cardiovascular. A avaliação epidemiológica do consumo desses eletrólitos é feita pelo questionário de frequência alimentar ou pela excreção urinária. O objetivo deste estudo é comparar esses métodos em uma amostra de servidores públicos brasileiros. TIPO DE ESTUDO E LOCAL: Avaliação transversal da linha de base do Estudo Longitudinal de Saúde do Adulto. MÉTODOS: O consumo de sódio e potássio foi obtido por dois métodos: questionário semi-quantitativo com 114 itens alimentares e excreção urinária de 12 horas noturnas. Estimativas de sódio e potássio obtidas pelo questionário foram ajustadas pela energia utilizando o método residual. A excreção urinária foi considerada válida se atendesse a três critérios: tempo de coleta, volume e excreção total de creatinina adequados. Foram estimadas médias dos nutrientes e calculada a correlação de Spearman. O consumo de sódio e potássio foi categorizado em quintis e foram calculados o kappa ponderado e o percentual de concordância. O nível de significância para todos os testes foi de 0,05. RESULTADOS: Foram analisados dados de 15,105 participantes e encontradas diferenças significativas entre médias de sódio (questionário: 4,5 ± 1,7 g; urina: 4,2 ± 2,1 g) e potássio (questionário: 4,7 ± 1,8 g; urina: 2,4 ± 1 g). Foi encontrada fraca concordância para sódio (K = 0,18) e potássio (K = 0,16). Percentuais de discordância entre métodos variaram de 41,8-44,5%; concordâncias exatas de 22,1-23,9%. CONCLUSÃO: A concordância entre o questionário de frequência alimentar e excreção urinária para avaliação do consumo de sódio e potássio foi modesta.

Ingesta de sodio y potasio en niños de 0 a 15 años: lo observado versus lo esperado / Sodium and potassium intake in children aged 0-15 years: measured versus expected

INTRODUCCIÓN: El diagnóstico de hipertensión arterial en pediatría tiene una prevalencia de alrededor de un 2 a 3%. Existen factores de riesgo modificables como los estilos de vida saludable, que han demostrado ser eficaces en reducir los niveles de presión arterial. Para objeto de este estudio se estudiaron las concentraciones de NaCl y K en la nutrición en pediatría. OBJETIVO: El objetivo del estudio fue determinar el consumo de cloruro de sodio y potasio en la nutrición que recibían un grupo de pacientes hospitalizados de 0 a 15 años de edad, recibiendo alimentación normal y compararla con el valor esperado normal. Para posteriormente realizar las modificaciones necesarias, dependiendo de los resultados del estudio, en conjunto con una elaboración de un programa de educación a los padres. MÉTODO: Es un estudio observacional analítico transversal, que fue realizado entre los meses de marzo y noviembre de 2013, donde se midió la concentración de cloruro de sodio y potasio en la alimentación que reciben los lactantes y niños hospitalizados en el servicio de pediatría de Clínica Las Condes y se comparó con los niveles recomendados para cada grupo de edad. Se analizaron 20 muestras recolectadas por cinco días consecutivos. Medición realizada por absorción atómica. Las nutriciones estudiadas fueron divididas en cuatro grupos de edad y aquellos que realizaron las mediciones estuvieron ciegos a éstos. RESULTADOS: Existieron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los valores esperados y los observados en la ingesta de cloruro de sodio y potasio en todos los grupos. CONCLUSIÓN: El aumento del cloruro de sodio se debía al uso de alimentos procesados. Al cambiarlos por alimentos naturales se logró llegar a los valores esperados. La baja ingesta de potasio se corrigió aumentando la oferta de frutas y verduras.

INTRODUCTION: The diagnosis of hypertension in children has a prevalence of about 2-3%. There are modifiable risk factors such as healthy lifestyles, which have proven to be effective in reducing blood pressure levels. For the purpose of this study the concentrations of NaCl and K in pediatric nutrition were studied. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to determine the use of sodium chloride and potassium in the nutrition received by a group of hospitalized patients from 0-15 years old, receiving normal diet and compare it with the normal expected value. Depending on the study results, the concentration will be modified to reach the recommended concetrations for age. Also we will elaborate an education program for parents. METHOD: A cross-sectional observational study, was conducted between March and November 2013, where the sodium chloride and potassium concentrations in the diet received by infants and children hospitalized in the pediatric unit of Clinic Las Condes were measured and compared with those recommended for each age group. Twenty samples collected for five consecutive days were analyzed. Measures were performed by atomic absorption. Foods studied were divided in four age groups. Those measurements were performed blind to the age grupo. RESULTS: The concentration of NaCl in all age groups was higher than the recommended and the K concentration was less than the recomendad. There were statistically significant differences between expected and observed values in intake of sodium chloride and potasium in all groups. CONCLUSION: Increased sodium chloride due to the use of processed foods. It was replaced by natural foods so will be able to reach the expected values. Low potassium intake was corrected by increasing the supply of fruits and vegetables.

Evaluación de la ingesta dietética y excreción urinaria de sodio y potasio en adultos / Assessment of dietary intake and urinary excretion of sodium and potassium in adults

Background: Hypertension is associated with elevated sodium and low potassium intakes. The determination of sodium and potassium intake by dietary records is inaccurate, being its measurement from 24-h urine collection the reference method. Aim: To determine urinary sodium and potassium excretion in adults. To compare dietary sodium and potassium intake and their excretion from an isolated urine sample against the reference method. Material and Methods: Seventy healthy adults aged 35 ± 8 years with a body mass index 25 ± 2 kg/m² (36 women) were studied. Urine was collected over 24 h, including an isolated urine sample taken in fasting conditions. Additionally, three 24-h dietary records were performed. Results: Reported sodium and potassium intake was 2,720 ± 567 and 1,068 ± 433 mg/day, respectively. In turn, urinary excretion of sodium and potassium was 4,770 ± 1,532 and 1,852 ± 559 mg/day, respectively. These latter values were significantly higher than those obtained by dietary records. Furthermore, the urinary sodium and potassium excretion estimated from an isolated urine sample was 4,839 ± 1,355 and 1,845 ± 494 mg/day, respectively. These values were similar to those obtained with a 24 h urine collection. Conclusions: Dietary records underestimated electrolyte intake when compared with the reference method. Using an isolated urine sample to estimate electrolyte intake may be a reliable alternative.

Equilibrio sodio-potasio en la regulación de la hipertensión arterial / Sodium-potassium balance in the regulation of high blood pressure

La hipertensión arterial esencial es considerada como la principal causa de muerte por la OMS. La cuarta parte de la población mayor de 15 años es hipertensa, lo que representa aproximadamente un billón de personas, que tendrán un importante aumento en el año 2025 cercano al 60 por ciento. Su prevalencia aumenta en proporción lineal con el aumento de edad. Desafortunadamente, los niveles de detección, tratamiento y control efectivo de la hipertensión arterial, son deficientes a nivel de Chile y mundial, por lo que es aún un problema de salud pública no resuelto y que por tanto necesita urgente atención. La reciente Encuesta Nacional Ministerial de Salud 2009-2010 de Chile reveló una prevalencia de hipertensión arterial nacional de un 26,9 por ciento, con un 65 por ciento de conocimiento de su existencia, 37,6 por ciento en tratamiento y sólo un 16,49 por ciento de control satisfactorio. Además, dicha encuesta revela marcadores de estilos de vida poco saludables, que permiten comprender la epidemia nacional de hipertensión arterial, a través de la existencia de múltiples factores de riesgo para ella. En esta revisión nos centramos especialmente en la importancia de la relación sodio-potasio en la regulación de la presión arterial. Llama la atención que todos los estudios destacan la importancia que tiene el sodio en la génesis de la hipertensión arterial por sus efectos presores, particularmente en sujetos sensibles, y poco o nada se manifieste de las variadas acciones benéficas que posee el potasio en la regulación de la presión arterial.

The World Health Organization considers essential hypertension as a primary cause of death. Twenty-five percent of the population over 15 has high blood pressure (HBP), equivalent to a billion people. It has been predicted that this group will increase by 60 percent, lineal with age increase in the overall population. Unfortunately, detection, treatment and effective control of HBP, are deficient both in Chile and in the rest of the world, making it an unresolved health problem demanding urgent attention. The recently conducted Chilean National Health Survey (2009-2010) revealed a 26.9 percent prevalence of this condition in the population, sixty-five percent of individuals are aware of their condition, 37.6 percent are in treatment and only 16,49 percent are effectively controlled. Furthermore, the survey reveals unhealthy life-style markers, which explains the epidemic that besets the country as there are multiple risk factors at stake. This review focuses mainly on the importance of the sodium-potassium relationship in the regulation of high blood pressure. It must be pointed out that all of the studies underscore the importance of sodium in the genesis of hypertension because of its effects of blood pressure, especially in sensitive individuals, while little attention has been given to the manifold beneficial actions of potassium in the regulation of blood pressure.

Consumo de fibra dietética, sodio, potasio y calcio y su relación con la presión arterial en hombres adultos normotensos / Dietary fiber, energy, spdium, potassium and calcium intake and its relationship to blood pressure in normotensive male adults

Objetivo. Evaluar el efecto del consumo de fibra dietética, energía, sodio, potasio y calcio sobre la presión arterial de un grupo de adultos normotensos, tomando en cuenta indicadores tales como la edad, el sexo la actividad física y la obesidad. Material y métodos. Se evaluaron 38 sujetos del sexo masculino de 30 a 45 de edad, normotensos, aparentemente sanos y residentes de la ciudad de Hermosillo, Sonora, México. Se midió la presión arterial y se arealizó una evaluación dietética, antropométrica y de actividad física. Resultados. La dieta resultó ser alta en fibra y en grasa. El sodio estaba 56 por ciento por arriba de la recomendación en 87 por ciento de los casos y fue la variable que más efecto mostró sobre la presión diastólica. De los sujetos estudiados, 36.9 por ciento tenían sobrepeso y obesidad, y se encontró una asociación significativa entre el índice de masa corporal y la presión diastólica y sistólica. Conclusiones. Existe una asociación significativa entre la hipertensión arterial y el alto consumo de sodio, el sobrepeso y la obesidad en sujetos normotensos

Nutritional potassium status of healthy adult males residing in the rural northeast Thailand.

Sixteen villages from rural areas of 8 provinces in the northeastern region of Thailand were randomly selected as study sites. Data on potassium (K) contents in 24-hour urine and serum samples of 93 healthy adult volunteer males aged 20-50 years old were completely collected and covered all 3 seasons of the year. The method of direct weighing of food was used to assess K intake in 13 subjects. K loss through sweat during working (9 hours) in the field was measured in 14 subjects by soaking their worn-clothes in distilled water after which K contents were measured by the flame photometry method. The results showed that the means urinary K excretion of 93 subjects were less than that of the cut-off value for normal (> or = 30 mmol/day) in all seasons of which 76.71%, 90.71% and 81.02% of the urine were categorized as hypokaliuria in the hot, rainy and cold seasons, respectively. In the case of serum K of these subjects, though the mean values were within a normal limit (> or = 3.5 mmol/l), 36.56%, 34.41% and 29.03% of the serum were classified as hypokalemia in the hot, rainy and cold seasons, respectively. In the assessment of K intake, it was clearly demonstrated that the values in all 3 seasons were much lower than that of the estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake (ESADI) of K for the westerners (1975-5625 mg/day), i.e., the means of intake in the hot, rainy and cold seasons were only 807 +/- 172, 877 +/- 257 and 902 +/- 227 mg/day, respectively. Furthermore, K loss through sweat in the cold and the hot seasons were as high as a third (7.4 +/- 2.4 mmol/day) and a half (11.5 +/- 1.6 mmol/day), respectively, of the urinary excretion. Though the total body K contents were not evaluated in this study, our results suggest rural people in the northeast region of Thailand may be in a state of K deficiency. The severity is probably worsened in the hot season as seen from the tendency of decrease in serum K levels among 650 renal stone formers and 260 blood donors in this season.

Tratamiento de la hipertensión arterial esencial con dieta rica en potasio

Con el objetico de determinar el efecto sobre la presión arterial de una dieta rica en potasio en pacientes adultos con hipertensión arterial leve, sin modificaciones en el consumo habitual de sodio y que no se encuentren bajo tratamiento farmacológico, se estudiaron 24 pacientes, distribuidos aleatoriamente en dos grupos. Al grupo de estudio se le ordenó iuna dieta rica en potasio (alrededor de 2mEq/kg-día), durante ocho semanas. A todos los pacientes se les recomendó continuar las medidas no farmacológicas usuales. Se midió la presión arterial semanalmente en el domicilio del paciente, así como el potasio y el sodio en suero y orina al inicio y en las semanas dos,cuatro y ocho. En todos los sujetos se observó disminución en las cifras tensionales; sin embargo, la reducción de la presión arterial sistólica en el grupo de estudio fue de 7.9ñ7.99 vs 18ñ8.72 mm Hg en el control (p<0.023); mientras que la reducción en la presión diastólica fue de 8.28ñ5.89 Vs 2.86ñ4.31 mm Hg,respectivamente (p<10elevada a la - 7). El efecto sobre la presión arterial tiende a estabilizarse a partir de la cuarta semana de tratamiento. No hubo modificaciones en los niveles séricos de potasio. Se observó incremento en la excreción de potasio en el grupo de estudio de 10.09ñ25.5 vs -4.98ñ19.15 mEq/L en el control (p<0,069). Se concluye que una dieta rica en potasio contribuye favorablemente para el control de la hipertensión arterial esencial y es una medida segura en pacientes con función renal normal