Uma visão dos trópicos de Heinrich Gerber, 1850-1860: ciência e pensamento econômico de um engenheiro politécnico alemão no Império do Brasil / Heinrich Gerber's vision of the tropics, 1850-1860: the scientific and economic thinking of a German polytechnic engineer in the Empire of Brazil

Resumo Analisa o pensamento científico do engenheiro politécnico Heinrich August Anton Gerber, contratado pelo governo da província de Minas Gerais de 1858 a 1867. O artigo explora o significado cultural e intelectual das atividades do engenheiro, especialmente a ideia de criação de empresa privada no setor da infraestrutura viária, bem como a mediação para importação de instrumentos científicos e livros. Os resultados também indicam que Gerber participa do envio de brasileiros para estudar engenharia em Paris. Este texto investiga as trocas culturais entre Brasil e Europa, a aplicação do conhecimento científico e o encontro com problemas práticos de ordem econômica e social pelo engenheiro no interior do Império do Brasil.

Abstract This article analyzes the scientific thinking of the German polytechnic engineer Heinrich August Anton Gerber, who was employed by Minas Gerais province from 1858 to 1867. We explore the cultural and intellectual significance of his activities, particularly the idea of creating a private company within the roadway infrastructure sector and his mediating role in the importation of scientific instruments and books. Gerber also appears to have been part of efforts to send Brazilians to study engineering in Paris. Cultural exchanges between Brazil and Europe are investigated, along with the application of scientific knowledge and his encounters with practical economic and social challenges in the interior of the Empire of Brazil.

State Control of Medicine through Legislation and Revision of the Medical Law : Licensed and Unlicensed Medical Practices in the 1950s - 60s / 의사학

In the 1950s and 1960s, Korea overcame the aftermath of the war and laid the foundations for modernization of economy and professionalization of medicine. The National Medical Services Law, enacted in 1951 was the first medical law to be legislated since the establishment of the Republic of Korea. The law provided a medical system for the traditional Korean medical practitioners, activated opening of hospitals through report-only system and prohibition of interference in medical practice, and facilitated mobilization of the doctors by the government. The Medical Law, legislated in 1962 by the Park Jong-Hee administration contained practice license system, regular practice reporting system and practice designation, thereby strengthening the government control on the medical practitioners, inducing professionalism and high-quality of medical practitioners and abolished unlicensed medical practitioners such as acupuncturists, moxa cauterists and bone setters. The Medical Assistant Law of 1963 was introduced so that medical examination and assistance could be carried out under supervision of professional doctors. To reduce areas without healthcare system, region-specified medical practitioners got licensure and a community doctor system was organized. However, due to expensive medical fees in comparison to economic status and medical needs of patients, shortage of doctors, low accessibility to hospitals led to the prevalence of illegal medical practice by unlicensed practitioners. Absence of national budget or policy on the health care system and the American-style noninterference medical system were other factors causing the situation. Government, Korean Medical Associations and Korean Dental Association tried, without success, to exercise control over the unlicensed medical practice. President Park Jong-Hee had to introduce a special law concerning the health-care related crimes with life sentence as the highest penalty. While the government put modernization before social welfare, operated on a policy of state-controlled medical care system, and doctors achieved specialization system similar to that of the United States, the public had to suffer, being treated by unlicensed medical practitioners. Inevitably, the need for a national medical practitioner supply plan and a policy to support health service was raised.

Re-evaluation of the Medical Practice and the Medicine in the Later Half of the Chosun Dynasty / 의사학

The state-running medical institutions which had been instituted in the earlier period of the Chosun dynasty substantially downsized during the reconstructing process after the major wars with Japan and Qing dynasty. The downsizing was mainly due to the malfunctioning public financial system; but it was also due to the growth of the private medical market. The growth of the private medical market reoriented the focus of the public health system of the Chosun dynasty from providing treatment for every minor disease to providing the more efficient policy against epidemic. Hwal-in Seo (a temporary local public health center established for epidemic) became a new core of the dynasty's health policy under the phrase of "Ae Rye (saving the rituals)." As the changes of the dynasty's public health policy, the growing private medical market had been admitted into the public domain. Chosun government once had declared Sa Yak Gye (a private mutual-aid group for medicine) illegal and prohibited the private groups to be organized. Instead, with the policy change mentioned above, the government tried to support the private mutual-aid group for medicine while forbidding sales of fake medicine, restraining rise of price of medicine. Especially the Do go merchants often caused the sudden rise of price of medicine by bulk purchasing. Medical practice was reassessed as the period when it was considered as one of the lowest professions had been over. Although the Yangban class still refused to be a professional medical practitioner themselves, they also well understood the value of medicine as a field of study to save human and dismissed negative perception on medicine. Medicine as a field of study and medical practice, which had been underestimated under the ruling system influenced by the Song Confucianism and the status system of the Chosun dynasty, faced a new era. The whole society guaranteed more free practices of the medical practitioners and they were recognized for their works. With the change of social environment, the government officials gradually realized needs to discuss how they could educate and recruit medical practitioners to provide advanced medical treatment and what provisions they had to legislate to ensure the stable supply of the medicine. It is certain that the transformation developed in the medical environment and the changes of the public health policy up to 18th century Chosun dynasty accompanied the emergence of the commercial society. However, the overall social urge was still not enough to induce the actual law-making process. The change of the public health policy and the growth of the private medical market were surely the evidence of the transforming Chosun society; at the same time, they also revealed the immaturity of the medical environment which was not able to lead new health policies.