Viruela en Santiago, Concepción y Santafé: comparación de las estrategias higienistas ilustradas (1782-1807) / Smallpox in Santiago, Concepcion and Santafe: A Comparisson of the Enlightened Sanitary Strategies (1782-1807) / Varíola em Santiago, Concepcion e Santafe: Um comparisson das estratégias sanitárias esclarecidas (1782-1807)

Introducción: este artículo pretende estudiar las medidas tomadas en las epidemias de viruela de Santiago (1787), Concepción (1789) y Santafé (1782/1802), para compararlas y entender cómo el estudio de estas epidemias nos puede dar luces para el abordaje del reto de salud pública actual: la pandemia de covid-19. Desarrollo: el artículo está dividido en tres partes: en la primera se exponen las medidas de higiene que se tomaron para subsanar y prevenir estas epidemias, previas a la llegada de la vacunación, comparando el rol desempeñado por los actores locales en cada región; en la segunda se relata y se compara el proceso de llegada y búsqueda de la vacuna contra la viruela en cada territorio, y en la tercera se reflexiona brevemente sobre la pandemia actual. Conclusiones: en el análisis comparativo, se destaca la manera en la que la agenda transcolonial incluye una serie de similitudes para su aplicación en cada territorio, pero también las diferencias que los procesos locales y transcoloniales plantean para su domesticación en cada uno de ellos. Además, se resaltan las particularidades que ha tenido la pandemia de covid-19 y las lecciones que este estudio de caso deja para pensar en la necesidad de enfrentarla desde una perspectiva global.

Introduction: This study aimed to investigate and compare measures implemented during the smallpox epidemics in Santiago (1787), Concepción (1789), and Santafé (1782/1802). In addition, we also tried to understand how the study of these epidemics could help identify an approach for managing the current public health challenge, i.e., the covid-19 pandemic. Development: The article is divided into three parts: the first part studies the hygienic measures that were taken to face and prevent the epidemics as well as compares the role played by local actors in each region; the second part studies the processes of searching and acquiring smallpox vaccine in Santafé and Santiago; and the third part reflects on the current pandemic scenario. Conclusions: Through comparative analysis, we evaluated the similarities in the application of transcolonial agenda in each territory and the differences brought about by local and transcolonial processes implemented for its domestication. Furthermore, we highlighted particular processes conducted for managing and treating covid-19 as well as lessons learnt from this case study about the need of dealing with covid-19 from a global perspective.

Introdução: este artigo tem como objetivo estudar as medidas tomadas nas epidemias de varíola de Santiago (1787), Concepción (1789) e Santafé (1782/1802), compará-las e compreender como o estudo des-sas epidemias pode lançar luz sobre a abordagem do desafio atual da saúde pública: a pandemia covid-19. Desenvolvimento: o artigo está dividido em três partes: na primeira, são expostas as medidas de higiene que foram tomadas para corrigir e prevenir estas epidemias, antes da chegada da vacinação, comparando o papel desempenhado pelos atores locais em cada região; na segunda, relaciona-se e compara-se o processo de chegada e busca da vacina contra a varíola em cada território; e, na terceira, faz uma breve refle-xão sobre a atual pandemia. Conclusões: na análise comparativa, destacamos a forma como a agenda transcolonial suscita uma série de semelhanças para a sua aplicação em cada território, mas também as diferenças que os processos locais e transcoloniais colocam para a sua domesticação em cada um deles. Além disso, destacamos as particularidades que a pandemia covid-19 teve e as lições que este estudo de caso deixa para pensar a necessidade de enfrentá-la a partir de uma perspectiva global.

Higiene como prática individual e como instrumento de Estado / Hygiene as individual practice and as an instrument of the State

Resumo O estudo esboça algumas compreensões sobre a palavra "higiene". A partir do Renascimento, a ideia advinda da Grécia Antiga voltou a ser trabalhada, primeiramente como método para uma organização dietética e moral da vida que visava ao seu prolongamento. De uma espécie de cuidado de si, transformou-se em conceito de governança, cujo objetivo era o prolongamento da vida dos súditos/cidadãos. O debate teórico sobre o que era higiene pública mostra sua faceta eminentemente política: não apenas era um ramo da economia política, mas também eram analisadas as propostas dos higienistas de acordo com seu maior ou menor impacto na política. A batalha político-científica resultou na vitória de certas compreensões de ação estatal, e no esquecimento e na negligência de outras.

Abstract This study outlines some understandings of the word "hygiene." The notion that originated in ancient Greece first began to be adopted as a system of diet and morals to prolong the lifespan. From a type of self-care, this idea transformed into a concept of governance to extend the lives of subject-citizens. The theoretical debate about what public hygiene used to be shows its eminently political side: not only was hygiene a branch of the political economy, the ideas of hygienists were also analyzed as to the degree of impact they had on policy. After political and scientific battles, certain understandings of government action emerged victorious, while others were forgotten and neglected.

Carne podre, café com milho e leite com água: disputas de autoridade e fiscalização do comércio de gêneros na Corte imperial, 1840-1889 / Rotten meat, coffee with corn, and watered-down milk: power struggles and oversight of the food trade in the Imperial Court, 1840-1889

Durante o Segundo Reinado, a regulamentação e a fiscalização do comércio de gêneros na cidade do Rio de Janeiro foram marcadas por intensos conflitos envolvendo a Câmara Municipal, a Secretaria de Polícia e a Junta Central de Higiene, cujas atribuições se sobrepunham no tocante a essa questão. O artigo analisa os enfrentamentos entre esses órgãos, considerando as confusões de competências e as disputas de autoridade e enfatizando o esforço da instituição camarária em manter suas antigas atribuições quanto à saúde pública, aspecto fundamental para a preservação de sua capacidade de intervenção governativa.

During the Second Reign, the regulation and inspection of food trade in the city of Rio de Janeiro were characterized by heated clashes between three agencies that had overlapping powers in the matter: the Câmara Municipal (Municipal Chambers), the Secretaria de Polícia (Police Department), and the Junta Central de Higiene Pública (Central Public Hygiene Board). The article analyzes the conflicts between these agencies, while taking into account their coincidental duties and power disputes and also underscoring the Chamber's effort to preserve its former public health responsibilities, essential to protecting its governmental capacities.

Contexto político y económico del surgimiento de la salud pública moderna en el periodo 1872-1914 / Political and economic context at the beginning of modern public health in 1872-1914

Este artículo estudia el periodo denominado por los historiadores como el gran siglo XIX o siglo XIX largo, que comprende todo el siglo XIX más las décadas que antecedieron y acompañaron a la Primera Guerra Mundial y que corresponde con la expansión y consolidación del imperialismo clásico. Desde la perspectiva de la salud pública, es importante por la transición de la higiene pública a la moderna salud pública, caracterizada ya hacia 1880 por el advenimiento de la teoría bacteriológica y su influencia en las medidas de sanidad estatal. El surgimiento de la salud pública y la medicina estatal en América Latina es una consecuencia lógica de la instauración de modos de producción capitalista en los países del continente, ya que las relaciones sociales y económicas de los individuos con el Estado fueron duramente afectadas y transformadas por los procesos de incipiente industrialización y consolidación del modelo de producción capitalista, lo cual implicó la consolidación de un cuerpo burocrático y un aumento de la intervención en la vida de los ciudadanos por la vía de las políticas sociales. En Colombia, la burguesía en el poder respondió a los problemas de salud pública (apoyada por la Fundación Rockefeller), como las distintas epidemias de viruela, cólera, malaria o fiebre amarilla, que recorrieron con mayor o menor severidad el país desde los litorales Atlántico o Pacífico hasta el interior con el riesgo de diezmar las poblaciones obreras y afectar el intercambio comercial del país con Estados Unidos.

This article analyzes the period that historians call the Big or Long XIX Century, which encompasses, besides the XIX century, the preceding decades and the decades of World War I. It corresponds to the expansion and consolidation of classic imperialism. From the public health perspective, the Big XIX century is important with the beginning of bacteriological theory in 1880 and the transition from hygiene to public health with governments controlling sanitary. The appearance of state medicine in the Latin American region is a logical consequence of the implementation of capitalist modes of production given that the social and economic relationships between the people and the state were harshly affected and transformed by the incipient industrialization and consolidation of the capitalist production model. The state apparatus consolidated a bureaucratic body and increased its intervention in citizens’ everyday lives via social policies. In the case of Colombia, the beginning of hygiene practices and, later on, of bacteriology occurred in particular ways. This can be observed along the XIX century, a period in which the bourgeoisie in power responded, supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, mostly to episodic events such as the smallpox, cholera, malaria or yellow fever epidemics, which run through the country with different degrees of severity from both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts towards the interior of the country, threatening to reduce the population of workers and to affect the commercial exchange of the country with the United States.

La época del imperialismo y sus implicaciones en la salud pública / Imperialist times and its implications for public health

Este artículo estudia el denominado gran siglo XIX o largo siglo XIX, que comprende todo este siglo más las décadas que antecedieron y acompañaron a la primera guerra mundial y que se corresponde con la consolidación del imperialismo. Desde la perspectiva de la salud pública, es importante por haberse producido la transición de la higiene a la salud pública y que ya en 1880 caracteriza el advenimiento de la teoría bacteriológica y su influencia en las medidas de sanidad estatal imperantes. La medicina antes de 1900 se caracterizaba por 1)predominio de lo militar y de lo imperial; 2)principios de prevención importados y concentrados en prácticas sanitarias; 3)la medicina colonial no estaba separada de la medicina imperial; 4)interés en las colonias como fuerzas productivas o de inestabilidad política; 5)el interés pasó de las medidas de sanidad general a la búsqueda de agentes específicos para las enfermedades y a medidas para su control; y 6)la medicina tropical se vuelve un especialidad de posgrado. El fenómeno del imperialismo norteamericano comparte las principales característica con el imperialismo europeo, pero se diferencia en las medidas sanitarias, pues los americanos temían la introducción de enfermedades prevalentes en los trópicos, ya fuera por México, el Atlántico o el Pacífico, para lo cual diseñaron e implementaron rigurosas medidas de inspección y control en los países donde tenían intereses comerciales y en los puertos de embarque de pasajeros y mercancías hacía su territorio. El surgimiento de la medicina estatal en nuestra subregión es una consecuencia de la instauración de modos de producció. Ello implicó la consolidación de un cuerpo burocrático y un aumento de la intervención en la vida de los ciudadanos por la vía de las políticas sociales. En Colombia, la introducción de las prácticas de higiene y luego de la bacteriología tienen un discurrir particular, lo cual se pone de relieve a lo largo del siglo XIX, cuando las epidemias de viruela, cólera o fiebre amarilla que recorrieron con mayor o menor severidad el país, desde los litorales Atlántico y Pacífico hasta el interior, con el riesgo de diezmar las poblaciones obreras y afectar el incipiente intercambio comercial del país.

This articles studies the period called by historians as the Big or Long XIX century. Besides the XIX century by itself, it encompasses the decades that preceded it and the decades of the First World War. All of them belong to the consolidation of imperialism. From the perspective of public health, The Big XIX century is important because of the transition from hygiene to public health, and the beginning of the transition from hygiene to public health, and the benign of the bacteriologic theory in 1880, influencing sanitary control measures of the State. Before 1900, medicine was characterized by: 1) predominance of military and of imperial approaches, 2) prevention principles were imported and concentrated in sanitary practices; 3) colonial medicine was not separated from imperial medicine; 4) interest focused on colonies as productive forces or as sources of political instability; 5) the main concern went from general sanitary measurements to the search for specific disease agents and their control measurements; and 6) tropical medicine becomes a postgraduate specialty. North- American imperialism shares the main characteristics of European imperialism shares the main characteristics of sanitary measurements because Americans feared the introduction of prevalent diseases from the tropics to their territory either through Mexico or through the ports in the Atlantic or the Pacific oceans. In order to avoid this, Americans designed and implemented rigorous inspection and control meausurements in the countries where they had commercial interests and in the ports where passengers and merchandise were headed to the United States. The appearance of state medicine in Latin American is a logical consequence of the implementation of the capitalistic mode of production, provided social and economic relationships between the people and the State were hardly affected and transformed by the incipient industrialization the consolidation of such a production model. This implied the consolidation of a bureaucratic mass and an increased intervention in everyday lives of the citizens via the social policies. In Colombia, the beginning of hygiene practices and later on, of bacteriology developed in very distinctive ways. This can be observed along the XIX century, a period in which the bourgeoisie responded mainly to episodic events such as smallpox, cholera or yellow fever epidemics, which affected Atlantic and Pacific coasts towards the inner part of the country, threatening to reduce the population of workers and effecting the incipient commercial exchange of the country.