Desarrollo y validación de una tarea experimental de Memoria Episódica verbal en español / Development and validation of an experimental verbal Episodic Memory task in Spanish

RESUMEN Propósito Elaborar y validar una tarea experimental de memoria episódica verbal en español. Método Se elaboraron seis bloques de codificación: tres profundos y tres superficiales, cado uno con distintas demandas de esfuerzo cognitivo. Los bloques fueron revisados por cuatro jueces expertos y examinados en una aplicación piloto. Se evaluó la concordancia respecto a si la tarea permitía manipular combinadamente el nivel de procesamiento y el esfuerzo cognitivo durante la codificación incidental de palabras, así como la claridad de las instrucciones, ejemplos y dinámica de trabajo. Resultados Variables como la disponibilidad léxica, metría y fuerza de asociación fueron útiles para diferenciar el esfuerzo cognitivo entre cada bloque. Los jueces concordaron que los bloques de procesamiento admiten una manipulación combinada del nivel de procesamiento y esfuerzo cognitivo y que las instrucciones son precisas. Luego del pilotaje, los participantes concordaron que las instrucciones, ejemplos y forma de trabajo eran fácil de comprender y realizar. Conclusión Los resultados proporcionan evidencia de validez relacionada con el contenido para la tarea experimental propuesta, transformándose con ello en una alternativa viable de considerar en investigaciones orientadas a identificar factores ambientales que contribuyan a compensar los defectos que muestra la memoria episódica con la edad.

ABSTRACT Purpose To develop and validate an experimental verbal episodic memory task in Spanish. Methods Six encoding blocks were elaborated, three deep and three superficial, each one with different demands of cognitive effort. The blocks were reviewed by four expert judges and tested in a pilot application. The agreement was assessed on whether the task allowed combined processing level and cognitive effort to be manipulated during incidental encoding of words, as well as clarity of instructions, examples, and workflow. Results Variables such as lexical availability, metrics, and strength of association were useful to differentiate the cognitive effort between each block. The judges agreed that the processing blocks allowed a combined manipulation of the level of processing and cognitive effort and that the instructions are precise. After the pilot, the participants agreed that the instructions, examples, and way of working were easy to understand and perform. Conclusion The results provide evidence of validity related to the content for the proposed experimental task, thus becoming a viable alternative to consider in research aimed at identifying environmental factors that contribute to compensating the defects shown by episodic memory with age.

Effects of dexmedetomidine on enhancement of fear memory by propofol in rats with post-traumatic stress disorder / 中华麻醉学杂志

Objective:To evaluate the effects of dexmedetomidine on the enhancement of fear memory by propofol in rats with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).Methods:Two hundred and twenty clean-grade healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 300-400 g, aged 12-16 weeks, underwent conditioned fear memory training, and PTSD model was developed.One hundred and twenty rats were divided into 6 groups ( n=20 each) by a random number table method: control group (C group), PTSD group, propofol group (P1 group), and propofol + different doses of dexmedetomidine groups (P1+ DEX10 group, P1+ DEX20 group and P1+ DEX40 group). In group C, only sound was played and no electric shock was given during conditioned fear memory training.After conditioned fear memory training, sesame oil 1 ml/kg was intraperitoneally injected in PTSD group, propofol 1 ml/kg was intraperitoneally injected in group P1, and dexmedetomidine 10, 20 and 40 μg/kg were intraperitoneally injected in P1+ DEX10, P1+ DEX20 and P1+ DEX40 groups, respectively.After drug administration, conditioned fear memory test was performed to record the time of rigid behavior within 90 s, and the percentage of time of rigid behavior was calculated.The development of SpO 2<90% was recorded during administration.One hundred Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 5 groups ( n=20 each) by the random number table method: propofol group (P2 group), and propofol+ dexmedetomidine given at different timings groups (P2+ DEX T0 group, P2+ DEX T30 group, P2+ DEX T60 group and P2+ DEX T90 group). After the conditioned fear memory training, propofol 1 ml/kg was intraperitoneally injected in 5 groups, an then dexmedetomidine 20 μg/kg was intraperitoneally injected at 0, 30, 60 and 90 min after propofol administration in P2+ DEX T0, P2+ DEX T30, P2+ DEX T60 and P2+ DEX T90 groups, respectively.Conditioned fear memory test was performed after drug administration to record the time of rigid behavior within 90 s, and the percentage of time of rigid behavior was calculated. Results:Only 6 rats developed SpO 2<90% during the administration period in P1+ DEX40 group.Compared with C group, the percentage of time of rigid behavior was significantly increased in PTSD group ( P<0.05). Compared with PTSD group, the percentage of time of rigid behavior was significantly increased in P1 group ( P<0.05). Compared with P1 group, the percentage of time of rigid behavior was significantly decreased in P1+ DEX20 and P1+ DEX40 groups ( P<0.05), and no significant change was found in the percentage of time of rigid behavior in P1+ DEX10 group ( P>0.05). Compared with P2 group, the percentage of time of rigid behavior was significantly decreased in P2+ DEX T0 and P2+ DEX T30 groups ( P<0.05), and no significant change was found in the percentage of time of rigid behavior in P2+ DEX T60 and P2+ DEX T90 groups ( P>0.05). Conclusions:Dexmedetomidine can attenuate propofol-induced enhancement of fear memory in a rat model of PTSD, and the best effect is achieved in early administration of moderate dose (20 μg/kg, within 30 min after propofol administration).

Effect and underlying mechanism of obstructive sleep apnea on memory consolidation / 四川精神卫生

The purpose of this paper is to review the research progress on the effects of obstructive sleep apnea （OSA） on memory consolidation， and to speculate on possible mechanisms underlying these effects， so as to inform the exploration of effective therapeutic measures for impaired memory consolidation. Previous studies have shown that mild OSA may impair different types of memory consolidation， and the impairments are closely related to certain indices of polysomnography （such as sleep microstructure， apnea hypopnea index， arousal index， etc）. Therefore， it is hypothesized that disruption of sleep architecture and damage to brain regions and neural pathways associated with sleep-dependent memory consolidation due to intermittent hypoxia may trigger a decline in memory consolidation. Meantime， long-term continuous positive airway pressure can alleviate the impairment of memory consolidation induced by OSA， but whether other interventions can mitigate the damage remains unclear.

Effects of Naringin on neuronal apoptosis in mice with memory consolidation disorder / 国际中医中药杂志

Objective:To observe the effect of Naringin on neuronal apoptosis in mice with memory consolidation disorderinduced by sodium nitrite.Methods:Fifty mice were randomly divided into blank group, model group, standardized protocol group, high-dose Naringin group and low-dose Naringin group, with 10 mice in each group. The standardized protocol group was given Donepezil 1 mg/kg, the Naringin high and low dose groups were gavaged with Naringin solution 100 and 50 mg/(kg·d), blank group and model group were gavaged with equal volume of distilled water once a day for 21 days. The model was established on the 22nd day. The blank group was intraperitoneally injected with normal saline, and the other groups were intraperitoneally injected with 100 mg/(kg·d) sodium nitrite solution for 7 days. The cognitive ability of mice in each group was evaluated by platform jumping test, and the hippocampal synaptic structure was observed by electron microscope. The contents of acetylcholine (ACh), SOD, MDA and NO in hippocampus and the activity of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) was detected by ELISA. The expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), glutamine receptor 2 (GluR), calcium/calmodulin dependent protease Ⅱ (CaMK Ⅱ), Caspase-3, Bcl-2 and Bad proteins in hippocampus of model mice were detected by Western blot.Results:The number and morphology of hippocampal neurons were normal, nucleus, mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum and synaptic membrane of hippocampal neurons in high-dose Naringin group were clear. Compared with the model group, the latency of mice in the high-dose Naringin group was prolonged and the number of errors was reduced ( P<0.01). The levels of MDA and NO in hippocampus of mice in the high-dose Naringin group significantly decreased ( P<0.01), and the activity of SOD significantly increased ( P<0.01). The content of ACh (23.682 ± 2.835 μg/mg prot vs. 14.939 ± 2.901 μg/mg prot), ChAT (163.302 ± 21.278 U/g vs. 89.612 ± 11.497 U/g) increased, AChE (0.367 ± 0.015 U/mg prot vs. 0.471 ± 0.014 U/mg prot) activity decreased ( P<0.01); The expression of Bad (0.441 ± 0.010 vs. 0.633 ± 0.010), Caspase-3 (0.425 ± 0.036 vs. 0.537 ± 0.024) significantly decreased, and the expression of Bcl-2 (0.890 ± 0.014 vs. 0.727 ± 0.009) significantly increased ( P<0.01); The expression of CAMKⅡ (1.043 ± 0.037 vs. 1.475 ± 0.043) significantly decreased ( P<0.01), and the expression of NMDAR1 (0.407 ± 0.037 vs. 0.345 ± 0.012), GluR2 (1.125 ± 0.033 vs. 0.664 ± 0.023) significantly increased ( P<0.01). Conclusion:Naringin could play the role of protecing the neuron and improving the cognition of mice with memory consolidation disorder by regulating the balance of ACh and glutamate system and reducing neuronal apoptosis and antioxidant stress.

A Critical Time-Window for the Selective Induction of Hippocampal Memory Consolidation by a Brief Episode of Slow-Wave Sleep / 神经科学通报·英文版

Although extensively studied, the exact role of sleep in learning and memory is still not very clear. Sleep deprivation has been most frequently used to explore the effects of sleep on learning and memory, but the results from such studies are inevitably complicated by concurrent stress and distress. Furthermore, it is not clear whether there is a strict time-window between sleep and memory consolidation. In the present study we were able to induce time-locked slow-wave sleep (SWS) in mice by optogenetically stimulating GABAergic neurons in the parafacial zone (PZ), providing a direct approach to analyze the influences of SWS on learning and memory with precise time-windows. We found that SWS induced by light for 30 min immediately or 15 min after the training phase of the object-in-place task significantly prolonged the memory from 30 min to 6 h. However, induction of SWS 30 min after the training phase did not improve memory, suggesting a critical time-window between the induction of a brief episode of SWS and learning for memory consolidation. Application of a gentle touch to the mice during light stimulation to prevent SWS induction also failed to improve memory, indicating the specific role of SWS, but not the activation of PZ GABAergic neurons itself, in memory consolidation. Similar influences of light-induced SWS on memory consolidation also occurred for Y-maze spatial memory and contextual fear memory, but not for cued fear memory. SWS induction immediately before the test phase had no effect on memory performance, indicating that SWS does not affect memory retrieval. Thus, by induction of a brief-episode SWS we have revealed a critical time window for the consolidation of hippocampus-dependent memory.

Interferência retroativa: o esquecimento como uma interrupção na consolidação da memória / Interferencia retroactiva: olvido como una interrupción en la consolidación de la memoria / Retroactive interference: forgetting as an interruption of memory consolidation

O esquecimento é uma condição vivenciada diariamente pelos indivíduos e um conceito de extrema importância para a ciência da memória, apesar de sua experimentação ser complexa. Algumas teorias que tentam definir a ciência do esquecimento são apresentadas neste estudo, todavia, aqui focamos na Teoria da Interferência, principalmente na Interferência Retroativa (IR). A IR é a interferência que ocorre quando uma informação ou tarefa é inserida entre a apresentação de uma informação-alvo e sua posterior recordação. A IR pode ser explicada como uma competição de itens, mas atualmente surge a proposta que ela seja fruto da interrupção de um outro processo, chamado de Consolidação da Memória. A consolidação da memória é o processo através do qual as informações tornam-se estáveis, a partir de processos neurais posteriores ao registro inicial de uma informação que contribuem para o registro definitivo - ou, ao menos, mais duradouro - desta informação. A IR perturbaria estes processos posteriores à aprendizagem, resultando na perda destes materiais. O presente estudo visa propor a possibilidade da investigação mais aprofundada deste tópico para a melhor compreensão desse relevante conceito, visando aprofundar o conhecimento desta hipótese e outras possíveis causas do esquecimento.

El olvido es una condición experimentada diariamente por individuos y un concepto de suma importancia para la ciencia de la memoria, a pesar de que el proceso de experimentación sea complejo. En el presente estudio algunas teorías que tratan de definir la ciencia de olvido serán discutidas, sin embargo, aquí nos centramos en la teoría de la interferencia, especialmente en la interferencia retroactiva (IR). El IR es la interferencia que se produce cuando se introduce una información o tarea entre la presentación de una información-objetivo y su posterior recordación. El IR se puede explicar como un elemento de competencia entre los elementos, pero recientemente viene la propuesta de que es el resultado de la interrupción de otro proceso, llamado consolidación de la memoria. Consolidación de la memoria es el proceso por el cual ocurre la estabilización de la información, a partir de procesos neuronales posteriores al registro inicial de información que contribuyen al registro definitivo - o por lo menos, más duraderos - de esta información. El IR podría teóricamente perturbar estos procesos posteriores al aprendizaje, lo que resulta en la pérdida de estas informaciones. El presente estudio tiene como objetivo proponer una investigación mas profunda de este tema para comprender mejor este importante concepto, dirigido a profundizar el conocimiento de esta hipótesis y de otras posibles causas del olvido.

Although experimenting with forgetting is complex, forgetting is not only a condition experienced by individuals every day but also an extremely important concept in memory science. Some theories that attempt to define the science of forgetting are presented in this study; however, we have focused here on the theory of interference, retroactive interference (RI) in particular. RI is the interference that occurs when a task or piece of information is inserted between the presentation of target information and its subsequent recall. Although RI can be explained as competition between items, some have now proposed that it results from the interruption of the process of memory consolidation, through which information become stable; neural processes following the initial recording of information contribute to the definitive-or, at least, longer lasting-record of this information. RI disrupts post-learning processes, resulting in the loss of these materials. This study proposes a deeper investigation of RI and memory consolidation to obtain a better understanding of this important concept, seeking to deepen knowledge of this hypothesis and other possible causes of forgetting.

Protective effect and its mechanism of codonopsis pilosula polysaccharide on memory consolidation disorder induced by cycloheximide in mice / 中国药理学与毒理学杂志

OBJECTIVE To investigate the protective effect of Codonopsis Pilosula Polysaccharide (CPPS) on improving of the memory consolidation disorder induced by Cycloheximide and its possible mechanisms in mice. METHODS The mice was divided into five groups, as normal control group, cycloheximid model group, piracetam positive control group, CPPS 300 mg · kg- 1 group, and CPPS 150 mg·kg-1 group. The mice respectively were given saline, piracetam, and CPPS for 15 d. The memory consolidation disorder model in mice was established by ip. Cyclohexylamine, and orally administered CPPS(300 mg·kg-1 or 150 mg·kg-1) every day. Then experimental groups were subjected Morris Water Maze test. Western blotting analysis were used to analysis the expression of CaMKⅡ/CREB signaling pathways. RESULTS Morris water maze experiment showed that cyclohexylamine can cause memory consolidation disorder(P<0.01), and giving piracetam and CPPS (300 mg · kg- 1) can improve spatial memory impairment in mice(P<0.05, P<0.01). Western blotting experiment results show that compared with normal control group, CaMKⅡ and CREB contents of brain in model group mice had significant decreased(P<0.001); Compared with model group, CaMK Ⅱ and CREB contents of brain tissue in piracetam and CPPS groups increased significantly(P<0.05,P<0.01,P<0.001). CONCLUSION Cyclo?heximide can induce the memory consolidation disorder, and its effect in mice related to CaMK/CREB signaling pathways. CPPS can improved this memory disorder by influence CaMKⅡ/CREB signaling pathways.

The effects and relevance of sleep on memory consolidation in patients with stable paranoid schizophrenia / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective To explore the memory function and the effects of sleep on memory consolidation in patients with stable paranoid schizophrenia.Method Sixty patients with stable paranoid schizophrenia were randomly assigned into research group (n =30) and control group (n =30).30 healthy people were raised as a healthy control group.The polysomnography (PSG) was used for 10 hours of sleep monitoring in the research group and the healthy control group and the muhiple memory assessment scale(MMAS) was used to test the subjects memory before and after the sleep monitoring.Control group performed memory tests in equal length daytime.Pre-test and post-memory measurements were compared.Results The prememory test of three groups had significant statistical differences (F(2.87) =31.40,39.89;P＜0.01).Both the auditory verbal/picture memory conservation rate and recognition accuracy rate between research group and healthy controls had no statistically significance differences (P＞0.05).But compared with the control group,auditory verbal memory conservation rate ((62.64±9.06) ％ vs (43.00±9.73) ％,P＜0.01),recognition accuracy rate ((69.11±11.04)％ vs (61.78±11.67)％,P＜0.05),picture memory conservation rate((71.20±14.95) ％ vs (58.72 ± 16.19) ％,P＜ 0.01),recognition accuracy rate ((86.89 ± 8.02) ％ vs (78.89 ±12.63) ％,P＜0.01) of the research group showed statistical significance differences (P＜0.05).Both N2 (r=0.377,P＜0.05) and REM (r=0.436,P＜0.05) had positive correlation with recognition accuracy rate of auditory verbal memory in research group.Conclusion Stable paranoid schizophrenic patients have poorer memory function(auditory verbal words memory recall,picture memory recall) than healthy people.Sleep promotes the consolidation of memory in patients with schizophrenia.Both N2 and REM of patients with stable paranoid schizophrenic have positive correlation with recognition accuracy rate of auditory verbal memory.

Targeted Memory Reactivation can Enhance Memory Consolidation during Sleep / 수면정신생리

Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) is a method whereby cues associated with previous learning are used to externally reactivate aspects of this learning. Research findings demonstrate that TMR can be a useful tool to enhance memory consolidation during sleep in both animals and humans, especially in the declarative/spatial domain. Neurocognitive processing during sleep with covert cueing via auditory or olfactory stimulation can benefit memory storage. These beneficial effects on memory consolidation during sleep are associated with the activation of memory-related brain areas. The purpose of the present review is to provide a short overview of the findings of studies that adopted the TMR method of sleep-dependent memory consolidation and to suggest the potential applications of TMR in variable areas.

Pharmacological Activities and Applications of Spicatoside A

Liriopogons (Liriope and Opiopogon) species are used as a main medicinal ingredient in several Asian countries. The Liriopes Radix (tuber, root of Liriope platyphylla) has to be a promising candidate due to their source of phytochemicals. Steroidal saponins and their glycosides, phenolic compounds, secondary metabolites are considered of active constituents in Liriopes Radix. Spicatoside A, a steroidal saponin, could be more efficacious drug candidate in future. In this review, we summarized the available knowledge on phytochemical and pharmacological activities for spicatoside A. It significantly suppressed the level of NF-κB, NO, iNOS, Cox-2, IL-1β, IL-6 and MAPKs in LPS-stimulated inflammation. The production of MUC5AC mucin was increased. MMP-13 expression was down-regulated in IL-1β-treated cells and reduced glycosaminoglycan release from IL-1α-treated cells. The neurite outgrowth activity, PI3K, Akt, ERK1/2, TrkA and CREB phosphorylation and neurotropic factors such as NGF and BDNF were upregulated with increased latency time. It also showed cell growth inhibitory activity on various carcinoma cells. From this, spicatoside A exerts anti-inflammation, anti-asthma, anti-osteoclastogenesis, neurite outgrowth, memory consolidation and anticancer activities. Further studies are needed on spicatoside A in order to understand mechanisms of action to treat various human diseases.

Effect of histamine H1 and H2 receptor antagonists, microinjected into cerebellar vermis, on emotional memory consolidation in mice

This study investigated the effects of histamine H1 or H2 receptor antagonists on emotional memory consolidation in mice submitted to the elevated plus maze (EPM). The cerebellar vermis of male mice (Swiss albino) was implanted using a cannula guide. Three days after recovery, behavioral tests were performed in the EPM on 2 consecutive days (T1 and T2). Immediately after exposure to the EPM (T1), animals received a microinjection of saline (SAL) or the H1 antagonist chlorpheniramine (CPA; 0.016, 0.052, or 0.16 nmol/0.1 µL) in Experiment 1, and SAL or the H2 antagonist ranitidine (RA; 0.57, 2.85, or 5.7 nmol/0.1 µL) in Experiment 2. Twenty-four hours later, mice were reexposed to the EPM (T2) under the same experimental conditions but they did not receive any injection. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and the Duncan test. In Experiment 1, mice microinjected with SAL and with CPA entered the open arms less often (%OAE) and spent less time in the open arms (%OAT) in T2, and there was no difference among groups. The results of Experiment 2 demonstrated that the values of %OAE and %OAT in T2 were lower compared to T1 for the groups that were microinjected with SAL and 2.85 nmol/0.1 µL RA. However, when animals were microinjected with 5.7 nmol/0.1 µL RA, they did not show a reduction in %OAE and %OAT. These results demonstrate that CPA did not affect behavior at the doses used in this study, while 5.7 nmol/0.1 µL RA induced impairment of memory consolidation in the EPM.

Low-dose thioperamide injected into the cerebellar vermis of mice immediately after exposure to the elevated plus-maze impairs their avoidance behavior on re-exposure to the apparatus

The present study investigated the effect of thioperamide (THIO), an H3 histaminergic receptor antagonist, microinjected into the cerebellar vermis on emotional memory consolidation in male Swiss albino mice re-exposed to the elevated plus-maze (EPM). We implanted a guide cannula into the cerebellar vermis using stereotactic surgery. On the third day after surgery, we performed behavioral tests for two consecutive days. On the first day (exposure), the mice (n=10/group) were exposed to the EPM and received THIO (0.06, 0.3, or 1.5 ng/0.1 µL) immediately after the end of the session. Twenty-four hours later, the mice were re-exposed to the EPM under the same experimental conditions, but without drug injection. A reduction in the exploration of the open arms upon re-exposure to the EPM (percentage of number of entries and time spent in open arms) compared with the initial exposure was used as an indicator of learning and memory. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by the Duncan post hoc test was used to analyze the data. Upon re-exposure, exploratory activity in the open arms was reduced in the control group, and with the two highest THIO doses: 0.3 and 1.5 ng/0.1 µL. No reduction was seen with the lowest THIO dose (0.06 ng/0.1 µL), indicating inhibition of the consolidation of emotional memory. None of the doses interfered with the animals' locomotor activity. We conclude that THIO at the lowest dose (0.06 ng/0.1 µL) microinjected into the cerebellum impaired emotional memory consolidation in mice.

Memory Consolidating During Sleep / 生物化学与生物物理进展

Sleep and memory are the basic function of the brain. A large number of studies from both humans and animals experiments have offered a substantive body of evidence supporting that sleep contributes crucially to memory consolidation. The processes of memory consolidation in hippocampus and cortex during sleep was reviewed and the primary cellular and molecular mechanism were briefly introduced.

Sleep and Memory / 수면정신생리

Study in the field of sleep and memory has greatly expanded recently and the number of publications supporting the association between sleep and memory consolidation is rapidly growing. This study presents evidence related to sleep-dependent memory consolidation, ranging from behavioral task-performing studies to molecular studies, and several arguments against the association. Basic researches show that many genes are upwardly regulated during sleep and patterns of brain activation seen during daytime task training are repeated during subsequent REM sleep. Several electrophysiological studies demonstrate the correlation between spindle density increase following training and subsequent improvement in performing the training task. Overnight improvement or deterioration in task performance correlates with REM or SWS sleep. In the end, a lot of issues remain to be studied and discussed further in the future in spite of supporting evidence now available.

Effects of extract of Alpinia officinarum Hance on learning memory consolidation and free radical in mice / 中成药

AIM:To explore the effects of galangal (Alpinia officinarum Hance) extract on learning ability and memory consolidation and clearance of the free radical in mice. METHODS:Ninety mice receiving sodium nitrite to form the dysmnesic model ones,which were used to observe the walking behaviours in Morris water maze under the administration of galangal extact. SOD activity and the MDA content were measured with colorimetry,The morphological change in hippocampus slices were assessed using H-E staining and microscopic examination. RESULTS:To compare with the model group,the escape latency was markedly shortened(P