An Overview of Precision Farming

With respect to conventional farming precision agriculture increases average yields by limiting the wastage by calculating the exact required quantities of inputs. One major issue in India is the relatively small and scattered landholdings. In India 58% of the cultivable land is less than 1ha under single owner. The agricultural production system is the result of a complex interplay between seed, soil, water, and agrochemicals (including fertilizers). As a result, judicious control of all inputs is critical for the long-term viability of such a complex system. Precision agriculture is the use of technology and techniques to control the geographical and temporal variability associated with all aspects of agricultural production to improve output and environmental quality. Precision agricultural success is dependent on an accurate assessment of variability, its management, and evaluation in the space-time continuum of crop production. Precision agriculture's agronomic performance has been highly impressive in sugar beet, sugarcane, tea, and coffee crops. Due to lack of knowledge of space-time continuum the economic benefits environmental and social advantages are not explored yet. Precision agriculture is a relatively new field that integrates cutting-edge geographic technology with farming scenarios to optimize inputs, eliminate waste, and maximize returns. Precision farming systems are intended for use in many sorts of agricultural systems, ranging from row crops to dairy, and the technology has experienced extensive acceptance in the United States and across the globe.

Impact of Precision Farming on Shelf Life and Organoleptic Evaluation of Banana (Musa paradisiaca L.) cv. Rajapuri

Consumers choose the fruits that look good, firm and offer good flavour and have nutritive value. Producers and handlers are first concerned with appearance and textural quality along with long post harvest shelf life. Present experiment was undertaken at ICAR-AICRP on Fruits, Kittur Rani Channamma College of Horticulture, Arabhavi to know the impact of precision farming on shelf life and organoleptic evaluation of banana cv. Rajapuri during 2019-20 and 2020-21 in the laboratory, Department of Fruit Science, KRC College of Horticulture, Arabhavi, Karnataka (India). The experiment was carried out in Randomized Complete Block Design with thirteen treatments and three replications. Among all the treatments, application of 100 per cent RDF through fertigation at weekly intervals along with polythene mulching with foliar spray of micronutrient mixture and bunch nutrition recorded the highest shelf life (10.00 days) and the least physiological loss in weight (8.45 %). The analyzed results for overall acceptability were in higher preference level in T5, T7 and T9 (9.00) while minimum was noticed in T13 (7.00).

Factors Influencing Adoption of Precision Farming Technologies in Watermelon Cultivation

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) is one of the important fruit crops cultivating in India. Adoption improved production technologies in watermelon cultivation is not followed by majority of the farmers. Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agriculture Modernization and Water Bodies Restoration and Management (TN IAMWARM) is a unique World Bank funded project implemented with the prime motive of increasing the productivity of irrigated agriculture in the state of Tamil Nadu. Accordingly the TNIAMWARM project was implemented in Villupuram district through Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tindivanam with one of the interventions that dissemination of precision farming technologies in watermelon cultivation to improve its productivity. The present study analysed the factors influencing adoption of Precision farming technologies in Watermelon cultivation. Most of the respondents gave first preference to the higher yield (Mean score - 72.2) as their reason of adoption of precision farming technologies in tomato cultivation followed by yield increase, provision of subsidy. Under external factors, the respondents gave first rank to TNAU scientists (Mean score - 79.42) as the influencer to adopt the precision farming technologies in watermelon cultivation. Further, the respondents expressed that the influence of executing TNIAMWARM project (79.25) exerted some compulsion on them which was deemed as a social factor in the adoption of Precision Farming technologies.

Spectral detection of nematodes in soybean at flowering growth stage using unmanned aerial vehicles / Detecção espectral de nematóides na soja em estádio de florescimento por meio de veículos aéreos não-tripulados

ABSTRACT: Soybean is one of the main crop species grown in the world. However, there is a decline in productivity due to the various types of stress, including the nematodes Heterodera glycines and Pratylenchus brachyurus. The objectives were to determine the best spectral band for detecting H. glycines and P. brachyurus at the beginning of flowering (R1). Soil and root sampling was conducted at nine sampling sites in each of the five nematode-infested regions, totaling 45 sampling points. Flights were made at all regions using Phantom 4 Advanced, Sequoia and 14-band customized Sentera. For H. glycines, the red spectral band best explained the variability on soil and root nematode counts as well as the second stage of juveniles in soil. For P. brachyurus, Sentera RedEdge best explained the variability in root nematode counts and Sequoia NIR best explained soil juveniles. A multiple linear regression model using spectral data for detecting P. brachyurus and H. glycines improved R² compared to simple linear regressions. At flowering growth stage (R1), soybean spectral reflectance was associated with the number of H. glycines and P. brachyurus on soil and roots using low-cost and multispectral sensors.

RESUMO: A soja é uma das principais espécies de planta cultivadas no mundo. Todavia, perdas de produtividade são ocasionadas por vários tipos de estresses, incluindo os nematoides H. glycines e P. brachyurus. Como objetivo, buscou-se determinar a melhor banda espectral para a detecção do H. glycines e P. brachyurus com o uso de modelos de regressões lineares simples e definir um modelo matemático de regressão linear múltiplo para sua detecção, no início do florescimento (R1). Para isto, foram definidos nove pontos de coleta em cinco reboleiras, totalizando 45 pontos. As coletas foram feitas em um padrão específico de distâncias, de forma a ter amostras com tipos variados de populações de nematoides. Foram realizados voos com o Phantom 4 Advanced, Sequoia e Sentera sobre cada uma das reboleiras. O comprimento de onda do vermelho melhor explicou a variabilidade dos dados para H. glycines no solo e na raiz, bem como dos juvenis de segundo estádio no solo. Para P. brachyurus, a RedEdge da Sentera foi a que explicou melhor a variabilidade dos dados para nematoide na raiz e a NIR da Sequoia a que melhor explicou para juvenis no solo. Quando se utilizou um modelo matemático para a detecção do P. brachyurus e H. glycines, percebe-se uma grande melhora no R² e p-valor com relação às regressões lineares simples. No início da floração (R1), a refletância espectral da soja foi associada ao número de H. glycines e P. brachyurus no solo e nas raízes, usando sensores de baixo custo e multiespectrais.

Influencia del ángulo de iluminación solar y la altura de la toma de la imagen multiespectral sobre la estimación de biomasa de pasto kikuyo / Influence of height and zenith angle of multispectral images on the estimation of kikuyo grass biomass

RESUMEN El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la influencia del ángulo cenital de iluminación solar (mañana, mediodía y tarde) y la distancia (entre 10 y 50m) de imágenes multiespectrales de praderas de kikuyo, para la estimación de biomasa. Se capturaron datos espectrales de 40 muestras y se les calculó el índice de vegetación normalizada (NDVI) y la biomasa del forraje de las áreas fotografiadas. La relación de la biomasa con el NDVi, se hizo mediante modelos aditivos generalizados. Se encontró que es posible predecir la cantidad de biomasa con imágenes tomadas al mediodía y las alturas de vuelo analizadas (con R2 =0,99), indicando que el monitoreo de praderas puede incorporar información de sensores con bandas de rojo e infrarrojo cercano, tomadas entre las 12:00m y 1:00pm.

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of solar zenith angle (morning, noon and afternoon) and the distance (between 10 and 50m) of the multispectral images of kikuyo grasslands for biomass estimation. Spectral data from 40 samples were captured and the normalized vegetation index (NDVI) and the forage biomass of the photographed areas were calculated. The relationship of the biomass with the NDVi was made using generalized additive models. It was found that it is possible to predict the amount of biomass with images taken at noon and the flight heights analyzed (with R2 = 0.99), indicating that grassland monitoring can incorporate sensor information with red and near infrared bands taken between 12:00m and 1:00 pm.

Spatial variability structure of the surface layer attributes of gleysols from the coastal plain of Rio Grande do Sul / Estrutura de variabilidade espacial dos atributos da camada superficial de gleissolos da planície costeira do Rio Grande do Sul

The spatial variability structure of soil attributes in a certain area might influence the semivariogram fitting model and, consequently, the attribute behavior mapping in this area leading to different decisions regarding crop management. This study aimed to identify, characterize and quantify the spatial variability of chemical attributes and the clay content in the superficial layer of a Gleysoils mapping unit (MU) at reconnaissance scale in the coastal plain of Rio Grande do Sul, through descriptive statistics and geostatistics and compare the results taking into consideration the existence of three Gleysoils mapping units at semi-detailed scale through the scaled semivariogram technique. A 403 ha area located in the Rio Grande do Sul Coastal Plain, in the city of Jaguarão was sub-divided into three mapping units (GL- o, GL-mo.lv and GL-lv), a sampling grid with 403 points, 100 m far one from another was established. In a 5 m radius around each sampling point, 10 sub-samples of disturbed soil were collected from the 0-0.20 m layer, making up a soil compound sample, and the following attributes were determined for each sample: pH in water, organic carbon, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, potential acidity and clay content. The cation Exchange capacity (pH=7.0) and base saturation were also calculated. The identification, characterization and quantification of the spatial variability of attributes from the soil Ap horizons were carried out through descriptive statistics and geostatistics, considering the mapping unit at the reconnaissance scale and the three units at the semi-detailed scale. In the geostatistics analysis, the scaled semivariogram technique was employed aiming to compare the spatial variability structure for each soil attribute in the total area and in the three MUs at the semi-detailed scale. Regarding the descriptive statistics, the Ap horizon attributes behavior in GL-lv was similar to that in the total area of the soil layer under analysis; however, when considering the spatial coordinates, the spatial variability structure of the GL-mo.lv attributes was the one that best described the attributes variability in the total area. The scaled semivariogram technique revealed that the spatial behavior of the attributes pH and exchangeable sodium was similar, regardless of the evaluation scale adopted or the factor used for the scaled semivariogram.

A estrutura de variabilidade espacial dos atributos do solo em determinada área pode influenciar o modelo de ajuste do semivariograma e, consequentemente, o mapeamento do comportamento do atributo nesta área induzindo a decisões diferenciadas de manejo agrícola. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar, caracterizar e quantificar a variabilidade espacial de atributos químicos e do teor de argila da camada superficial de uma unidade de mapeamento de Gleissolos em escala de reconhecimento na Planície Costeira do Rio Grande do Sul, por meio da estatística descritiva e da geoestatística e comparar os resultados levando em consideração a existência de três unidades de mapeamento de Gleissolos em escala de semi-detalhe por meio da técnica de escalonamento de semivariogramas. Uma área de 403 ha localizada na Planície Costeira do Rio Grande do Sul, no município de Jaguarão, foi subdividida em três unidades de mapeamento (GMve1, GMve2 e GXve), sendo estabelecida uma malha total de amostragem de 403 pontos, distanciados entre si de 100 m. Em um raio de 5 m em torno de cada ponto amostral, foram coletadas 10 sub-amostras deformadas de solo na camada de 0-0,20 m, constituindo uma amostra composta de solo, sendo determinados os seguintes atributos das amostras: pH em água, carbono orgânico, fósforo, potássio, sódio, cálcio, magnésio, alumínio, acidez potencial e o conteúdo de argila. Calculou-se também a capacidade de troca de cátions (pH=7,0) e a saturação por bases. A identificação, caracterização e quantificação da variabilidade espacial dos atributos dos horizontes Ap dos solos foram realizadas por meio da estatística descritiva e da geoestatística, considerando a unidade de mapeamento em escala de reconhecimento e as três unidades em escala de semi-detalhe. Na análise geoestatística foi usada a técnica de escalonamento dos semivariogramas, com a finalidade de comparar as estruturas de variabilidade espacial de cada atributo do solo na área total e nas três UMs em escala de semi-detalhe. Em relação à estatística descritiva, o comportamento dos atributos do horizonte Ap na GXve é semelhante ao da área total na camada de solo avaliada; entretanto, ao considerar as coordenadas espaciais, a estrutura de variabilidade espacial dos atributos na GMve2 é a que melhor descreve a variabilidade dos atributos na área total. A técnica de escalonamento dos semivariogramas mostra que o comportamento espacial dos atributos pH e sódio trocável é semelhante, independente da escala de avaliação adotada e do fator usado para o escalonamento dos semivarigramas.

Sufficiency index for defining nitrogen recommendation in brachiaria grass pasture / Índice de suficiência para a definição de recomendação de nitrogênio em pastagem de capim braquiária

In addition to be absorbed by plants, nitrogen (N) applied in the soil is subject to loss by leaching, volatilization and microorganism immobilization. The spectral characteristics of plants have been used for defining the N fertilizer rate. However, it has been a challenge to translate the sensor readings into the N rate. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate three spectral variables to recommend variable rate N fertilization in Brachiaria decumbens using the Nitrogen Sufficiency Index (NSI). The five treatments consisted of a control plot (without nitrogen application), a reference plot with a fixed N rate of 150 kg ha-1 and three different spectral readings for applying N at variable rates. In the variable rate plots were initially applied a N rate equal to 50% of that in the reference plot, and the following rates were defined based on NSI. The three spectral variables were: a portable chlorophyll meter readings, Visible Atmospherically Resistant Index (VARIRedEdge) and the ratio between Modified Chlorophyll Absorption Ratio Index and Optimized Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (MCARI/OSAVI). The experiment was conducted in randomized block design with five replicates during three plant harvesting. The forage was harvested when the plant height was 25 cm in the reference plot. The variable rate treatments presented better nitrogen use efficiency than the fixed rate treatment. The portable chlorophyll meter was more suitable than the used vegetation indices to recommend variable N rate fertilization since their plots produced the same dry biomass matter as in the fixed rate plot with less amount of fertilizer applied.

Além de ser absorvido pelas plantas, o nitrogênio (N) aplicado no solo está sujeito à perda por lixiviação, volatilização e imobilização pelos microrganismos. As características espectrais das plantas têm sido usadas para definir a taxa de aplicação de fertilizante nitrogenado. No entanto, tem sido um desafio transformar as leituras dos sensores em taxas de N. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar três variáveis espectrais para recomendar adubação nitrogenada a taxa variável em Brachiaria decumbens, usando o Índice de Suficiência de Nitrogênio (NSI). Os cinco tratamentos consistiram de uma testemunha (sem aplicação de N), de uma parcela de referência com uma taxa de N fixa de 150 kg ha-1 e três leituras espectrais diferentes para a aplicação de N a taxas variáveis. Na taxa variável, as parcelas receberam inicialmente uma taxa de N igual a 50% da parcela de referência, e as seguintes taxas foram definidas com base no NSI. As três variáveis espectrais foram: as leituras do medidor portátil de clorofila (SPAD), Visible Atmospherically Resistant Index (VARIRedEdge) e a razão entre Modified Chlorophyll Absorption Ratio Index e Optimized Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (MCARI/OSAVI). O experimento foi conduzido em delineamento em blocos casualizados, com cinco repetições durante três colheitas da planta. A forragem foi colhida quando a altura da planta atingiu 25 cm na parcela de referência. Os tratamentos a taxa variável apresentaram melhor eficiência de uso de N do que o tratamento a taxa fixa. O medidor portátil de clorofila foi mais adequado que os índices de vegetação usados para recomendar a adubação nitrogenada à taxa variada uma vez que suas parcelas produziram a mesma massa seca que na parcela a taxa fixa com uma menor quantidade de N aplicado.

Mapeamento de picão preto resistente aos herbicidas inibidores da ALS na região sul mato-grossense / Mapping hairy beggarticks resistant to ALS herbicide in the mato grosso do sul region

Quando herbicidas com o mesmo mecanismo de ação são utilizados repetidamente por vários anos, biótipos resistentes de plantas daninhas, de ocorrência natural, podem sobreviver ao tratamento, propagar e passar a dominar a área. Objetivou-se com este trabalho identificar e mapear as plantas de picão preto (Bidens pilosa) resistente aos herbicidas inibidores da ALS (acetolactatosintase) na região Sul Mato-Grossense. Foi utilizado o método de contorno das reboleiras, que se define pelo caminhamento ao redor das áreas de ocorrência da planta. Biótipos de picão preto foram avaliados em relação a sua resistência aos herbicidas inibidores de ALS pela utilização de dosagens crescentes de um herbicida em parcelas experimentais instaladas na área. A metodologia testada para o mapeamento de picão preto pelo contorno das reboleiras foi eficaz para as condições avaliadas. O mapa geoespacial da planta daninha foi obtido, possibilitando seu uso para a aplicação localizada de herbicidas. Houve regiões do talhão onde o picão preto não estava presente. A área em estudo estava infestada de biótipos de picão preto com alguma resistência ao herbicida utilizado, que não fora eficaz.

When herbicides with the same action mechanism are used repeatedly for several years, the herbicide resistant weeds can survive the treatment, propagate and dominate the area. The aim of this work was to identify and to map the patches of hairy beggarticks (Bidenspilosa) resistant to ALS inhibitors (acetolactate synthase) in the Mato Grosso do Sul region. Weed patch contour method was used to mapping, which is defined by walking around the weed patch. Hairy beggarticks biotypes were evaluated for their resistance to ALS inhibitors according to the increment on the doses of an herbicide on experimental field plot in the mapped area. The method used for hairy beggar ticks mapping by weed patch contour was considered effective under the evaluated conditions, and the geospatial weed map was obtained, allowing the patch spraying. There were areas of the field free of hairy beggar ticks. The studied field area was infested by hairy beggarticksbiotypes resistant to the applied herbicide, which was not efficient.

Utilização de um veículo aéreo não-tripulado em atividades de imageamento georeferenciado / On the use of unmanned aerial vehicle for acquisition of georrefecend image data

Este trabalho teve por objetivo desenvolver subsídios para propor um procedimento alternativo para aquisição de dados, telemetria, monitoramento e georeferenciamento das atividades agrícolas, por meio da acoplagem de equipamentos eletrônicos a um Veículo Aéreo Não-Tripulado (VANT). Para tal, foi desenvolvido um VANT na Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, no qual foram acoplados equipamentos para a coleta de imagens e a aquisição de pontos de referência. O equipamento desenvolvido mostrou imenso potencial para ser utilizado como ferramenta auxiliar na localização de áreas com falhas de germinação, na infestação de invasoras e no mapeamento de área. O maior entrave a um melhor emprego deste equipamento refere-se à baixa qualidade das imagens geradas, mostrando a necessidade de reavaliações do aparato utilizado.

The aim of this study consisted in developing and testing an alternative procedure for data acquisition, telemetry, monitoring and geo-referencing in agricultural fields. The proposed approach was implemented by placing dedicated electronic gear onboard Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV). For this purpose an UAV was assembled at the Federal University in Santa Maria, Brazil and equipped with the required hardware for image and control points acquisition. Tests have shown that the proposed approach can be regarded as a valuable tool to detect areas affected by faulty germination, weed infestation and mapping in general. The tests have also shown that poor quality of the acquired image data was the main drawback in the equipment onboard the UAV, pointing to the need to reevaluate the system with regard to this particular aspect.