Incidence and risk factors for major infections in hospitalized children with nephrotic syndrome / Incidência e fatores de risco para infecções graves em crianças hospitalizadas com síndrome nefróticas

ABSTRACT Introduction: Children with nephrotic syndrome are at increased risk of infections because of disease status itself and use of various immunosuppressive agents. In majority, infections trigger relapses requiring hospitalization with increased risk of morbidity and mortality. This study aimed to determine the incidence, spectrum, and risk factors for major infections in hospitalized children with nephrotic syndrome. Methods: All consecutive hospitalized children between 1-12 years of age with nephrotic syndrome were enrolled in the study. Children with acute nephritis, secondary nephrotic syndrome as well as those admitted for diagnostic renal biopsy and intravenous cyclophosphamide or rituximab infusion were excluded. Results: A total of 148 children with 162 admissions were enrolled. Incidence of major infections in hospitalized children with nephrotic syndrome was 43.8%. Peritonitis was the commonest infection (24%), followed by pneumonia (18%), urinary tract infection (15%), and cellulitis (14%), contributing with two thirds of major infections. Streptococcus pneumoniae (n = 9) was the predominant organism isolated in children with peritonitis and pneumonia. On logistic regression analysis, serum albumin < 1.5gm/dL was the only independent risk factor for all infections (OR 2.6; 95% CI, 1.2-6; p = 0.01), especially for peritonitis (OR 29; 95% CI, 3-270; p = 0.003). There were four deaths (2.5%) in our study, all due to sepsis and multiorgan failure. Conclusions: Infection remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in children with nephrotic syndrome. As Pneumococcus was the most prevalent cause of infection in those children, attention should be paid to the pneumococcal immunization in children with nephrotic syndrome.

RESUMO Introdução: Crianças com síndrome nefrótica apresentam maior risco de infecções devido ao próprio status da doença e ao uso de vários agentes imunossupressores. Em grande parte, as infecções desencadeiam recidivas que exigem hospitalização, com risco aumentado de morbidade e mortalidade. Este estudo teve como objetivo determinar a incidência, o espectro e os fatores de risco para infecções graves em crianças hospitalizadas com síndrome nefrótica. Métodos: Todas as crianças hospitalizadas consecutivamente entre 1 e 12 anos de idade com síndrome nefrótica foram incluídas no estudo. Crianças com nefrite aguda, síndrome nefrótica secundária, bem como aquelas admitidas para biópsia renal diagnóstica e infusão intravenosa de ciclofosfamida ou rituximabe foram excluídas. Resultados: Foram cadastradas 148 crianças com 162 internações. A incidência de infecções graves em crianças hospitalizadas com síndrome nefrótica foi de 43,8%. A peritonite foi a infecção mais comum (24%), seguida por pneumonia (18%), infecção do trato urinário (15%) e celulite (14%), contribuindo com dois terços das principais infecções. Streptococcus pneumoniae (n = 9) foi o organismo predominantemente isolado em crianças com peritonite e pneumonia. Na análise de regressão logística, a albumina sérica < 1,5gm / dL foi o único fator de risco independente para todas as infecções (OR 2,6; 95% CI, 1,2-6; p = 0,01), especialmente para peritonite (OR 29; IC95% 3 -270, p = 0,003). Houve quatro mortes (2,5%) em nosso estudo, todas devido a sepse e falência de múltiplos órgãos. Conclusões: A infecção continua sendo uma importante causa de morbimortalidade em crianças com síndrome nefrótica. Como o Pneumococo foi a causa mais prevalente de infecção nessas crianças, deve-se atentar para a imunização pneumocócica em crianças com síndrome nefrótica.

A study of interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) serum levels in rats subjected to fecal peritonitis and treated with intraperitoneal ropivacaine / Avaliação dos níveis séricos de interleucina 6 (IL-6) e fator de necrose tumoral (TNF-α) em ratos submetidos a peritonite fecal e tratado com ropivacaína intraperitoneal

PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to assess the cytokine serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α in rats subjected to fecal peritonitis and treated with peritoneal lavage with 0.2% ropivacaine by peritoneal lavage. METHODS: We subjected 16 Wistar rats to laparotomy 6 hours after the induction of fecal peritonitis with autogenous stool and subsequently divided the rats randomly into 4 groups: I-control, no treatment; II- drying of the abdominal cavity; III- lavage of the abdominal cavity with 3 mL of 0.9% normal saline and drying; IV- lavage of the abdominal cavity with 3 mL of 0.2% ropivacaine and drying. Six hours following the laparotomy, the animals underwent cardiac puncture, and 1 mL of blood was collected for cytokine assessment before the animals were euthanized. RESULTS: The lavage with ropivacaine resulted in smaller TNF-α levels compared with those observed in the other treatment groups (p <0.05). Regarding IL-6, the ropivacaine group showed lower cytokine levels than those observed in groups I and II, but there was no significant difference (p> 0.05) between groups III and IV. CONCLUSION: Peritoneal lavage with 0.2% ropivacaine was shown to reduce plasma levels of IL-6 and TNF-α in the treatment of fecal peritonitis in rats.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar as dosagens séricas das citocinas Il-6 e TNF-α em ratos submetidos à peritonite fecal e tratados com lavagem peritoneal com ropivacaína a 0,2%. MÉTODOS: Utilizaram-se 16 ratos Wistar, submetidos à laparotomia 6 horas após a indução de peritonite fecal com fezes autógenas, distribuídos aleatoriamente em 4 grupos: I- Controle, nenhum tratamento; II- Enxugamento da cavidade abdominal; III- Lavagem da cavidade abdominal com 3 ml de solução salina 0,9% e enxugamento; IV- Lavagem da cavidade abdominal com 3 ml de ropivacaína a 0,2% e enxugamento. Seis horas após a laparotomia os animais foram submetidos à punção cardíaca com retirada de 1 mL de sangue para a dosagem das citocinas e, a seguir, eutanasiados. RESULTADOS: A lavagem com ropivacaína apresentou valores de TNF-α menores do que os observados com os outros tratamentos (p<0,05). Em relação aos valores da IL-6, o grupo da ropivacaína apresentou valores menores do que os observados com os grupos I e II, mas não houve diferença estatística (p>0,05) em relação ao grupo III. CONCLUSÃO: A lavagem peritoneal com ropivacaína a 0,2% no tratamento da peritonite fecal em ratos demonstrou reduzir os níveis plasmáticos de IL-6 e do TNF-α.

Evaluation of the effects of ozone therapy in the treatment of intra-abdominal infection in rats

INTRODUCTION: The antibacterial effect of ozone (O3) has been described in the extant literature, but the role of O3 therapy in the treatment of certain types of infection remains controversial. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of intraperitoneal (i.p.) O3 application in a cecal ligation/puncture rat model on interleukins (IL-6, IL-10) and cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant (CINC)-1 serum levels, acute lung injury and survival rates. METHODS: Four animal groups were used for the study: a) the SHAM group underwent laparotomy; b) the cecal ligation/puncture group underwent cecal ligation/puncture procedures; and c) the CLP+O2 and CLP+O3 groups underwent CLP+ corresponding gas mixture infusions (i.p.) throughout the observation period. IL-6, CINC-1 and IL-10 concentrations were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Acute lung injury was evaluated with the Evans blue dye lung leakage method and by lung histology. P<0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: CINC-1 was at the lowest level in the SHAM group and was lower for the CLP+O3 group vs. the CLP+O2 group and the cecal ligation/puncture group. IL-10 was lower for the SHAM group vs. the other three groups, which were similar compared to each other. IL-6 was lower for the SHAM group vs. all other groups, was lower for the CLP+O3 or CLP+O2 group vs. the cecal ligation/puncture group, and was similar for the CLP+O3 group vs. the CLP+O2 group. The lung histology score was lower for the SHAM group vs. the other groups. The Evans blue dye result was lower for the CLP+O3 group vs. the CLP+O2 group and the cecal ligation/puncture group but similar to that of the SHAM group. The survival rate for the CLP+O3 group was lower than for the SHAM group and similar to that for the other 2 groups (CLP and CLP+O2). CONCLUSION: Ozone therapy modulated the inflammatory response and acute lung injury in the cecal ligation/puncture infection model in rats, although there was no ...

The Association Between the Serum Sodium Level and the Severity of Complications in Liver Cirrhosis

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Dilutional hyponatremia associated with liver cirrhosis is caused by impaired free water clearance. Several studies have shown that serum sodium levels correlate with survival in cirrhotic patients. Little is known, however, regarding the relationship between the degree of dilutional hyponatremia and development of cirrhotic complications. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between the serum sodium level and the severity of complications in liver cirrhosis. METHODS: Data of inpatients with cirrhotic complications were collected retrospectively. The serum sodium levels and severity of complications of 188 inpatients were analyzed. RESULTS: The prevalence of dilutional hyponatremia, classified as serum sodium concentrations of < or =135 mmol/L, < or =130 mmol/L, and < or =125 mmol/L, were 20.8%, 14.9%, and 12.2%, respectively. The serum sodium level was strongly associated with the severity of liver function impairment as assessed by Child-Pugh and MELD scores (p<0.0001). Even a mild hyponatremia with a serum sodium concentration of 131-135 mmol/L was associated with severe complications. Sodium levels less than 130 mmol/L indicated the existence of massive ascites (OR, 2.685; CI, 1.316-5.477; p=0.007), grade III or higher hepatic encephalopathy (OR, 5.891; CI, 1.490-23.300; p=0.011), spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (OR, 2.562; CI, 1.162-5.653; p=0.020), and hepatic hydrothorax (OR, 5.723; CI, 1.889-17.336; p=0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Hyponatremia, especially serum levels < or =130 mmol/L, may indicate the existence of severe complications associated with liver cirrhosis

Development of a lethal model of peritonitis for assessment of laparoscopic and laparotomic treatments in rats

PURPOSE: Development of a lethal model of peritonitis to assess the results of treating that peritonitis using videolaparoscopy and laparotomy. METHODS: We developed a model of peritonitis in rats using cecal ligation (CLP) against a 2-mm diameter rigid mold and puncture. Two experiments were performed: determination of seven-day lethality; and analysis of white cell counts, blood cultures and cytokines (Interleukin-1 beta, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha and IL-6). The animals were divided into four groups: I - Sham surgery; II - CLP; III - CLP + Videolaparoscopy; and IV- CLP + Laparotomy . RESULTS: Seven-day lethality was 0 percent in group I, 80 percent in the group II (p<0.05), 60 percent in group III , and 20 percent in group IV. There was a significant reduction in leukocyte counts and higher levels of serum IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha and IL-6 in the group II compared to controls. The percentages of positive blood cultures were higher after videolaparoscopic compared to laparotomic treatment. CONCLUSION: The experimental model provoked a lethal form of peritonitis and that videolaparoscopic treatment had more bacteraemia than laparotomy.

OBJETIVO: Desenvolvimento de um modelo letal de peritonite para avaliar o tratamento desta peritonite por videolaparoscopia e laparotomia. MÉTODOS: Foi desenvolvido um modelo de peritonite em ratos utilizando ligadura do ceco (CLP) contra um molde rígido de 2mm de diâmetro, seguido de punção do órgão. Dois experimentos foram realizados: determinação da letalidade de 7 dias; e análise da leucometria, hemocultura e dos valores de citocinas (Interleucina-1 beta, TNF-alfa e IL-6). Os animais foram divididos em quatro grupos: I - Cirurgia simulada; II - CLP; III - CLP + Videolaparoscopia; e IV- CLP + Laparotomia . RESULTADOS: A letalidade de sete dias foi de 0 por cento no grupo I, 80 por cento no grupo II (p<0.05), 60 por cento no grupo III , e 20 por cento no grupo IV. Houve uma redução significativa na contagem de leucócitos e maiores níveis de citocinas séricas no grupo II quando comparado com o grupo controle. A porcentagem de hemoculturas positivas foi maior após videolaparoscopia quando comparado com o tratamento por laparotomia. CONCLUSÃO: O modelo experimental provocou uma forma de peritonite letal e que o tratamento por videolaparoscopia apresenta maiores taxas de bacteremia que o tratamento por laparotomia.

Resposta terapêutica e inflamatória de ratos com peritonite secundária submetidos ao uso tópico de ampicilina/sulbactam / Therapeutical and inflammatory response in rats with secondary peritonitis and topical use of ampicilin/sulbactam

OBJETIVOS: A peritonite aguda representa uma importante causa de sepsis e óbito nas unidades de terapia intensiva e cirurgia. Classicamente o seu tratamento deve incluir: a administração sistêmica de antibióticos, a remoção mecânica dos contaminantes e a restauração da integridade gastrintestinal. A utilização de antibióticos diretamente na cavidade peritoneal é controversa. Estudo com o objetivo de avaliar o uso terapêutico, intraperitoneal da ampicilina associada ao sulbactam. MÉTODOS: foram mensurados os níveis plasmáticos do óxido nítrico, bem como a contagem de eosinófilos, linfócitos, monócitos e neutrófilos no sangue e no lavado peritoneal, utilizando-se modelo de peritonite em ratos (ligadura-transfixação cecal). Vinte quatro ratos Wistar, machos, foram divididos em quatro grupos de seis animais, assim distribuídos: grupo A: método de indução de peritonite - soltura da ligadura + tratamento com soro fisiológico; grupo B: método de indução de peritonite + soltura da ligadura + tratamento com soro fisiológico acrescido de ampicilina / sulbactam; grupo C: método de indução de peritonite + soltura da ligadura-transfixação cecal; e grupo D: laparatomia para realização de lavado peritoneal mais coleta de sangue. A ligadura-transfixação do cecum permaneceu por 24 horas, antes do tratamento instaurado. Foi realizada uma relaparotomia nos 18 ratos com coleta de líquido de lavado peritoneal e sangue. Foram dosados os níveis plasmáticos de óxido nítrico e determinado o número de eosinófilos, linfócitos, monócitos e neutrófilos no sangue e no lavado peritoneal. RESULTADOS: Não ocorreu diferença estatisticamente significante (p > 0,05) nos níveis de óxido nítrico, bem como no número de eosinófilos, linfócitos, monócitos e neutrófilos no sangue e no lavado peritoneal, entre os grupos. CONCLUSÃO: Neste estudo, concluiu-se que: a utilização de ampicilina associada a sulbactam por via intraperitoneal nos ratos com peritonite fecal: não modificou a sobrevida; não alterou os níveis plasmáticos de óxido nítrico; não alterou a contagem de eosinófilos, linfócitos, monócitos e neutrófilos tanto no sangue como no lavado peritoneal.

Stenotrophomonas Maltophilia Infection in Patients Receiving Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal Dialysis

BACKGROUND: Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is a gram-negative bacillus that has become increasingly recognized as an important nosocomial pathogen, particularly in individuals with severe debilitation or immunosuppression. S. maltophilia is also characterized by its resistance to multiple antibiotics. S. maltophilia peritonitis in CAPD (continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis) patients is associated with a poor prognosis and loss of CAPD catheter. No report concerning this entity has been presented in Korea. Therefore, we describe and discuss five cases of the S. maltophilia infection associated with CAPD in three patients with peritonitis and two with exit-site infections. METHODS: We performed a retrospective search for episodes of S. maltophilia infections related to CAPD in our renal unit. The baseline levels of hemoglobin, albumin, cholesterol, BUN and creatinine were compared with age, sex and, if possible, the underlying disease-matched controls. RESULTS: All the patients with S. maltophilia peritonitis had diabetes mellitus as the underlying disease. The individual patients also had other significant combined morbidities, such as panhypopituitarism, COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cerebrovascular accident and myocardial infarction. The level of hemoglobin in these patients was significantly lower than in the controls, and the mean values of serum albumin, creatinine and BUN were also low. CONCLUSION: Immune dysfunction due to uremia, anemia, malnutrition, other comorbidities (e.g. diabetes mellitus), and also, an indwelling peritoneal catheter may be predisposing factors for the S. maltophilia infection in CAPD patients. Once the S. maltophilia infection is diagnosed in CAPD patient, the patient should be treated based on the understanding of this particular organism.

Klebsiella pneumoniae Septic Arthritis in a Cirrhotic Patient with Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Despite septic arthritis is increasingly being reported in elderly patients with diabetes or alcoholism, reported cases of spontaneous bacterial arthritis in cirrhotic patients are extremely rare. We present the first reported case of K. pneumoniae septic arthritis and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in a cirrhotic patient with hepatocellular carcinoma. K. pneumoniae, one of the most common causative organisms of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhotic patients, was isolated from both the blood and the joint fluid, which suggests that the route of infection was hematogenous. After the treatment with cefotaxime and closed tube drainage, the condition of the patient was improved, and subsequently, the joint fluid became sterile and the blood cultures were proved negative. Therefore, this case provides further evidence for the mode of infection being bacteremia in cirrhotic patients and suggests that the enteric bacteremia in cirrhotics may cause infection in different organ systems.

Exame do fluido peritoneal e hemograma de eqüinos submetidos à laparotomia e infusäo intraperitoneal de carboximetilcelulose / Peritoneal fluid exam and hemogram of horses submited to laparotomy and carboxymethylcellulose intraperitoneal infusion

A aplicaçäo intraperitoneal de carboximetilcelulose (CMC) tem sido utilizada na prevençäo de aderências peritoneais em animais e em humanos. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar a resposta do peritônio ao trauma cirúrgico e à aplicaçäo de CMC e estudar como se processa a metabolizaçäo da CMC. Dezenove eqüinos mestiços foram submetidos à laparotomia, quando se produziram lesöes no jejuno distal por abrasäo da serosa e isquemia. Nos 9 eqüinos do grupo tratamento, antes da síntese da parede abdominal, foi instilada, na cavidade peritoneal, uma soluçäo estéril de CMV, a 1 porcento na dose de 7 ml/kg. Nos eqüinos do grupo controle, nenhum medicamento foi aplicado na cavidade peritoneal. Após a cirurgia, colheram-se sangue e fluido peritoneal em 9 momentos: 4 horas após o fim da cirurgia, nos 3 primeiros dias pós-operatórios, pela manhä e a cada 48 horas nos dias subseqüentes ( no 5§, 7§, 9§, 11§ e 13§ dias pós-operatórios). Os exames laboratoriais demonstraram que todos os animais desenvolveram inflamaçäo peritoneal. Entretanto, nos animais do grupo tratamento, esta inflamaçäo foi mais intensa e com um curso mais longo. Observou-se também que a excreçäo da CMC ocorreu por fagocitose.

Arterial pH and arterial oxygenation are not essential for risk stratification in perforation peritonitis.

BACKGROUND: The Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE II) scoring system is widely used for assessing the severity of disease and prognostication in cases of perforation peritonitis. Investigations like arterial pH and oxygenation (PaO2), which are considered important in APACHE II, are not available in most hospitals. We therefore attempted to validate a modified APACHE II (without arterial pH and oxygenation) in cases of perforation peritonitis. METHODS: Fifty consecutive patients with perforation peritonitis admitted in the general surgical ward were prospectively analyzed vis-a-vis risk factors and mortality according to the modified APACHE II. RESULTS: The mean modified APACHE II score of those who died was 15.3 (SD 5.7) as compared to 6.6 (4.7) (p < 0.001) in those who survived. As the score increased, mortality rate rose (p < 0.001). When the score was greater than 15, mortality was 88.9%; there was 100% mortality with score greater than 17. CONCLUSION: The modified APACHE II, excluding arterial pH and oxygenation, is simplified, reliable and objective for prediction of outcome in perforation peritonitis.

Frequency, microbial spectrum, clinical and biochemical features of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and its variants

Cirhotic patients with ascites presenting at Chandka Medical College Hospital, Larkana, from May 1997 to June 1998 were included in the study to see the frequency, bacterial spectrum, clinical and biochemical features of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis [SBP]. Ninety cases [63 males and 27 females] of liver cirrhosis with ascites were selected for analysis. SBP was found in 29 [32.2 percent] of cases. The breakup of SBP into its subtypes was, classic SBP found in 10 [34.5 percent] of cases, the bacterascites [BA] was found in 1 [3.4 percent] and that of culture negative neutrocyte ascites [CNNA] was found among 18 [62.1 percent] of cases. The frequency of organisms found in culture of ascitic fluid was; E. coLi was found in 7 [63.64 percent] cases, pneumococcus in 2 [18.18 percent] cases, Kiebsiella in 1 [9.09 percent] and Staphylococcus in 1 [9.09 percent]. Mortality rate in patients with SBP was 31.03 percent

Serum potassium levels following suxamethonium administration in septic peritonitis patients.

Serum potassium and sodium changes following suxamethonium (1.5 mg/kg) administration were studied in 25 patients with septic peritonitis and 25 with no signs of peritonitis. A highly significant rise (P less than 0.001) in serum potassium (0.1-2.5 mEq/l) above the pre-induction levels was observed following suxamethonium administration in patients with septic peritonitis with maximum rise at 5 min following suxamethonium. This rise in potassium was significantly higher (P less than 0.001) in peritonitis patients at 3,5, and 10 min interval. A positive correlation was found between rise of potassium and duration of illness (P less than 0.01). No statistically significant changes were observed in serum sodium levels in both groups.