Antimicrobial indole alkaloids from Tabernaemontana corymbosa / 中国天然药物

Four unreported monoterpene indole alkaloids, tabernaecorymines B-E (1-4), together with twenty-one known indole alkaloids (5-25) were obtained from the stem bark of Tabernaemontana corymbosa. Their structures and absolute configurations were elucidated by extensive spectroscopy, quantum chemical calculations, DP4+ probability analyses and Mo2(OAc)4-induced electronic circular dichroism experiment. The antibacterial and antifungal activities of these compounds were evaluated and some of them showed significant activity against Staphylococcus aureus,Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus dysgalactiae and Candida albicans.

A new alkaloid from Ervatamia hainanensis / 中国中药杂志

In order to study the alkaloids from branches and leaves of Ervatamia hainanensis, silica gel, ODS, Sephadex LH-20 and HPLC chromatography were used to obtain six alkaloids from the branches and leaves of E. hainanensis with use of. Based on the physicochemical properties and spectral data, their structures were identified as 10-hydroxydemethylhirsuteine(1), 3R-hydroxycoronaridine(2), 3-(2-oxopropyl)coronaridine(3), pandine(4), 16-epi-vobasine(5), and 16-epi-vobasinic acid(6). Among them, compound 1 was a new monoterpenoid indole alkaloid, and compounds 5 and 6 were obtained from this plant for the first time.

Efeitos da fração acetato de etila de Tabernaemontana catharinensis sobre respostas glicêmicas e estresse oxidativo de Rattus norvegicus diabéticos / Effects of tabernaemontana catharinensis ethyl acetate fraction on glycemic responses and oxidative stress

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the Tabernaemontana catharinensis ethyl acetate fraction hypoglycemic and antioxidant activity through the peripheral glycemic dosage and enzymatic tests. Methods: Male rats were divided into 6 groups: control, diabetic control, control extract 50, diabetic extract 50, control extract 80, diabetic extract 80. In diabetic group animals alloxan (150mg/Kg) was administered to induce Diabetes Mellitus. The animals were beheaded following 15 days of treatment with extract or distilled water and the blood was collected in order to perform oxidative stress tests. Results: The diabetic control group showed high levels of glucose, increased levels of thiobarbituric acid and superoxide dismutase activity, and decreased activity of catalase and glutathione peroxidase enzymes. The diabetic animals that received 50mg/Kg and 80mg/Kg of extract showed a decrease in thiobarbituric acid levels and an increase of glutathione peroxidase activity when compared to the diabetic control group. It was observed that only animals treated with 80mg/Kg of extract had positive results regarding superoxide dismutase. Conclusions: The Tabernaemontana catharinensis ethyl acetate fraction when orally administered for 14 consecutive days at doses of 50mg/Kg and 80mg/Kg reduces the oxidative stress induced by alloxan administration

OBJETIVO: Avaliar a ação hipoglicemiante e antioxidante da fração acetato de etila do extrato de Tabernaemontana catharinensis através da dosagem glicêmica periférica e testes enzimáticos. MÉTODOS: Ratos machos foram divididos em seis grupos: controle, controle diabético, controle extrato 50, diabético extrato 50, controle extrato 80, diabético extrato 80. Nos animais dos grupos diabéticos foi induzida Diabetes Mellitus pela administração de 150mg/Kg de aloxana. Após 15 dias de tratamento com a fração acetato de etila de Tabernaemontana catharinensis ou água destilada, os animais foram decapitados e o sangue foi coletado para realização dos testes de estresse oxidativo. RESULTADOS: O grupo controle diabético apresentou níveis elevados de glicose, aumento dos níveis de ácido tiobarbitúrico e atividade da superóxido dismutase, e diminuição da atividade das enzimas catalase e glutationa peroxidase. Os animais dos grupos diabéticos tratados com 50 e 80mg/Kg do extrato apresentaram redução nos níveis de ácido tiobarbitúrico e aumento da atividade de glutationa peroxidase quando comparado ao grupo controle diabético. Apenas os animais que receberam o extrato na dose de 80mg/Kg obtiveram resultados positivos em relação ao superóxido dismutase. CONCLUSÕES: A fração acetato de etila de Tabernaemontana catharinensis, quando administrada por 14 dias consecutivos, via oral, nas doses de 50 e 80mg/Kg, promove redução nos níveis de estresse oxidativo gerado pela administração de aloxana

Morphoanatomic characterization of the stem and the leaf of Tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC (Apocynaceae) and antimutagenic activity of its leaves / Caracterização morfoanatômica do caule e da folha de Tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC (Apocynaceae) e atividade antimutagênica de suas folhas

ABSTRACT Tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC (Apocynaceae) is used as a medicinal plant by the population. In order to contribute to the safe use of the plant as herbal medicine, this study aimed to morphoanatomically characterize the aereal vegetative organs of T. catharinensis and to evaluate the leaves’ mutagenic and antimutagenic activities. Histological blades of leaves and stem of T. catharinensis were performed; the methionine system (methG1) and Aspergillusnidulans conidia germination analysis were employed for mutagenic and antimutagenic evaluation. The morphoanatomic analysis did not show trichomes in the stem, petiole and leaf. Besides, it was observed both the presence of bi-collateral bundles - except in the foliar apex where the bundles were from the collateral type - as well as anamphistomatic leaf with paracyte stomata and sub-epidermal layer in the region of the leaf edges. The mutagenicity/antimutagenicity trial indicated a significant decrease of mutation frequency in comparison with the control group and showed that the T. catharinensis had antimutagenic activity within the type, time and form of treatment. Since the germination test showed that the conidia germination was accelerated from the bud phase, activities at the cell cycle level and polarized growth proved to be possible. The morphoanatomic analysis of the leaf and stem associated with the mutagenic and antimutagenic analyses contributes to the safe use of the plant by humans and also for the quality control of a possible phytotherapeutic drug.

RESUMO Tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC (Apocynaceae) é utilizada como planta medicinal pela população. A fim de contribuir para o uso seguro da planta como medicinal, este trabalho teve como objetivo caracterizar morfoanatomicamente os órgãos vegetativos aéreos de T. catharinensis e avaliar a atividade mutagênica e antimutagênica de suas folhas. Foram realizados cortes histológicos da folha e do caule de T. catharinensis e, para a avaliação mutagênica e antimutagênica, foi utilizado o sistema metionina (methG1) e análise da germinação de conídios em Aspergillus nidulans. A análise morfoanatômica evidenciou a ausência de tricomas no caule, pecíolo e folha; presença de feixes bicolaterais, com exceção no ápice foliar cujos feixes são do tipo colateral; folha anfiestomática com estômatos paracíticos e camada subepidérmica na região do bordo foliar. O ensaio de mutagenicidade/antimutagenicidade mostrou uma diminuição significativa da frequência de mutação em relação ao controle, indicando que nesse tipo, tempo e forma de tratamento, T. catharinensis apresentou atividade antimutagênica. O ensaio de germinação evidenciou que houve aceleração da germinação dos conídios, a partir da fase de botão, indicando uma possível atuação em nível de ativação de ciclo celular e crescimento polarizado. A análise morfoanatômica da folha e do caule associados à análise mutagênica e antimutagênica, contribuem para o uso seguro da planta pela população e para o controle de qualidade de um possível fitoterápico.

In vivo anti-inflammatory activity of Tabernaemontana divaricata leaf extract on male albino mice / 中国天然药物

AIM@#To study the in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of Tabernaemontana divaricata leaf extract on male albino mice.@*METHODS@#Aqueous decoction and methanol leaf extracts were tested for their ability to reduce croton oil-induced edema in the mouse ear after topical application. The methanol leaf extract dose-dependently inhibited the croton oil-induced ear edema in mice (ID50 <500 μg·cm(-2)). A bioassay-guided liquid-liquid fractionation of this methanol extract gave four active fractions: water insoluble (F1), hexane (F2), ethyl acetate (F3) and water (F4).@*RESULTS@#The hexane fraction showed a very high activity (42.1% inhibition at 0.7 μg·cm(-2)) as compared to the control. The other fractions were less active (F1: 56.1% at 506.2 μg·cm(-2); F3: 57.3% at 289.3 μg·cm(-2); and F4: 31.9% for 203.8 μg·cm(-2)) while indomethacin gave 48.8% of inhibition at 90 μg·cm(-2). The activity of F1 and F3 may be at least in part explained by the presence of anti-inflammatory flavonoids, while the activity was not correlated to the tannin contents. No compounds were detected in the most active F2 fraction.@*CONCLUSIONS@#The results give a rational support to the traditional use of T. divaricata in tropical India as anti-inflammatory agent.

Antifertility effect of chronically administered Tabernaemontana divaricata leaf extract on male rats

OBJECTIVE@#To investigate the antifertility effect of chronically administered Tabernaemontana divaricata (T. divaricata) leaf extract on male rats.@*METHODS@#The effect of 50% ethanol extract of T. divaricata leaves on reproduction was studied on male rats. The study was divided into four groups of five animals each. The first groups (I) received vehicle alone to serve as control. The second, third and fourth groups (II, II and IV) of animals were administered the leaf extract daily at 50 mg/kg body weight, p.o.,100 mg/kg body weight, p.o., and 200 mg/kg body weight, p.o., respectively, for a period of 60 days.@*RESULTS@#Significant decreases in the weight of testes, epididymis, seminal vesicle and ventral prostate were observed. A dose related reduction in the testicular sperm count, epididymal sperm count and motility, number of fertile male, ratio between delivered and inseminated females and numbers of pups were observed. The testis showed a clear correlation between the dose and severity of lesions of seminiferous epithelium. In general, the seminiferous tubules appear reduced in size with a frequently filled eosinophilic material. Spermatogenesis arrested at the secondary spermatocyte stage. Pachytene spermatocytes were undergoing degeneration. Disorganigation and sloughing of immature germ cell were visible. Leydinf cells were atrophied. No morphological changes were observed in Sertoli cells. Significant reduction in serum concentration of luteinizing hormone and testosterone were observed. No distinct change in serum FSH concentration was recorded. The final body weights of all groups were elevated markedly. No alterations were recorded in any hematologiocal parameters.@*CONCLUSION@#It is concluded that the 50% ethanol extract of T. divaricata leaf produced dose related effect on male reproduction without altering general body metabolism.

Anti-fertility effect of flower extracts of Tabernaemontana divaricata in rats / 中国天然药物

AIM@#To evaluate the anti-fertility effect of methanolic (MeTD) and aqueous (AqTD) flower extracts of Tabernaemontana divaricata in rats.@*METHODS@#The anti-fertility activity of the extracts was evaluated using two experimental animal models: 1) Estrogenic activity was carried out in immature female rats using ethinyl estradiol as standard. The evaluation parameters includes changes in uterine weight and histopathology of uterus. 2) Anti-implantation and early abortifacient activity was performed in female Wistar rats. The number of implants and resorbtions were compared to vehicle control.@*RESULTS@#Phytochemical analysis of MeTD and AqTD revealed the presence of carbohydrates, amino acids, steroids, glycosides, flavonoids, alkaloids and tannins. In estrogenic activity, the MeTD and AqTD were offered significant estrogen-like activity at 500 mg·kg(-1), p.o. by increasing the uterine weight compared to vehicle control group. In Anti-implantation and early abortifacient activity study, MeTD (500 mg·kg(-1), p.o.) showed significant effect and it was evident by decrease in the number of implants and increase in the number of resorbtions compared to vehicle control group.@*CONCLUSION@#The MeTD at 500 mg·kg(-1), p.o. possess significant estrogenic, anti-implantation and early abortifacient activity, while the AqTD at 500 mg·kg(-1), p.o. was found to possess significant estrogenic activity and the results are in consistent with the literature reports related to anti-fertility effect of flower extracts of Tabernaemontana divaricata.

Reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitory effect of Tabernaemontana divaricata extract on synaptic transmission in rat CA1 hippocampus.

Background & objectives: Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChE-Is) are used for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). These drugs including galanthamine have been shown to modulate synaptic activity in hippocampus and improve memory processes. Although Tabernaemontana divaricata extract (TDE) has been used as traditional medicine for various pharmacological effects, its effect in enhancing cholinergic activity provides additional benefit to its known effects. We investigated whether TDE can modulate the synaptic function in hippocampus and compared its effects to those of galanthamine. Methods: Hippocampal slices were prepared from male wWistar rats, functional effects of TDE were characterized by using pharmacological tools and extracellular recordings of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs). Results: TDE significantly reduced fEPSPs. The fEPSPs reduction was prevented by atropine, but not pancuronium. These TDE effects were similar to those of galanthamine. Interpretation & conclusions: Our findings indicate that TDE can effectively modulate synaptic responses in the hippocampus similar to galanthamine, suggesting that this traditional medicine could be beneficial in ageing with ACh deprivation in the brain.

Avaliação da atividade antimicrobiana in vitro do extrato de Tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC / Evaluation of in vitro antimicrobial activity of Tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC. extract

Diversas espécies de Tabernaemontana têm sido estudadas devido a diversidade de alcalóides com atividade farmacológica. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a capacidade antimicrobiana in vitro do extrato das cascas do caule de Tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC.em cepas de Staphylococcus aureus e Pseudomonas aeruginosa, microrganismos causadores de diversas infecções. Os testes de susceptibilidade bacteriana foram realizados usando o método de Kirby Bauer, consistindo na difusão em disco do antibiótico em meio de cultivo Mueller Hinton. Os testes de inibição foram realizados com soluções do extrato bruto seco de T. catharinensis dissolvido em etanol 70 por cento (v/v) na concentração 1,0 mg mL-1, que aplicada nos discos de área 20 mm², apresentaram concentração de 0,005 mg mm-2. Como controle negativo, realizou-se ensaios com placas contendo P. aeruginosa, e discos com etanol 70 por cento (v/v), e como controle positivo, discos com os antibióticos ceftriaxona sódica (0,25 mg mm-2 de área do disco), tetraciclina (0,005 mg mm-2) e cefalexina (0,005 mg mm-2). A solução do extrato na concentração de 0,005 mg mm-2 inibiu o Staphylococcus aureus, com diâmetro médio do halo de 0,6 cm. O halo de inibição para o Pseudomonas aeruginosa foi em média 1,2 cm. A tetraciclina, a cefalexina, e o controle negativo (etanol 70 por cento v/v) não demonstraram ação antimicrobiana. O halo de inibição usando ceftriaxona foi em média 2,2 cm para P. aeruginosa e 1,0 cm para Staphylococcus aureus.

Several Tabernaemontana species have been studied due to their several alkaloids with pharmacological activity. The aim of this work was to evaluate the in vitro antimicrobial action of the extract from stem barks of Tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC. against strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, microorganisms that cause several infections. Bacterial susceptibility tests were performed by the Kirby-Bauer method, consisting in antibiotic disk diffusion in Mueller Hinton medium. Inhibition tests were performed with solutions of T. catharinensis dry crude extract dissolved in ethanol 70 percent (v/v) at 1.0 mg mL-1, which became 0.005 mg mm-2 when applied to 20 mm² disks. As negative control, assays were carried out in plates containing P. aeruginosa and disks with ethanol 70 percent (v/v). Positive control consisted of disks containing the antibiotics ceftriaxone sodium (0.25 mg mm-2 disk area), tetracycline (0.005 mg mm-2) and cephalexin (0.005 mg mm-2). Extract solution at 0.005 mg mm-2 inhibited Staphylococcus aureus, with 0.6cm halo mean diameter. The inhibition halo for Pseudomonas aeruginosa was on average 1.2 cm. Tetracycline, cephalexin and negative control (ethanol 70 percent v/v) did not show antimicrobial action, whereas ceftriaxone sodium resulted in 2.2 and 1.0cm mean inhibition halo diameters for P. aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively.

Atividade alelopática de extratos aquosos de plantas medicinais na germinação de Lactuca sativa L. e Bidens pilosa L. / Allelopathic activity of aqueous extracts of medicinal plants on the germination of Lactuca sativa L. and Bidens pilosa L.

O potencial alelopático de quatro diferentes extratos de plantas medicinais (Eclipta alba, Gomphrena globosa, Tabernaemontana catharinensis e Tithonia diversifolia) foi avaliado na germinação de Bidens pilosa e Lactuca sativa. Dentre os resultados obtidos no teste de germinação, notou-se um maior poder inibitório do extrato de G. globosa sobre sementes e plântulas de Bidens pilosa e Lactuca sativa independente da concentração utilizada e aumento da atividade inibitória de extratos T. catharinensis e de T. diversifolia com aumento da concentração destes. Quanto ao Índice de Velocidade de Germinação, os dados demonstraram redução do índice devido a elevada mortalidade das plântulas submetidas aos extratos de G. globosa e de T. catharinensis e a germinação tardia das sementes submetidas ao extrato de T. diversifolia. Quanto ao vigor das sementes, as menores porcentagens de sobrevivência ocorreram extratos à 2,5 por cento para B. pilosa e 10 por cento para L. sativa.

The allelopathic potential of four different extracts of medicinal plants (Eclipta alba, Gomphrena globosa, Tabernaemontana catharinensis and Tithonia diversifolia) was evaluated on the germination of Bidens pilosa and Lactuca sativa. The results obtained in the germination test indicated a greater inhibitory activity of G. globosa extract on Bidens pilosa and Lactuca sativa seeds and seedlings, regardlessof the used concentration, and an increase in the inhibitory activity of T. catharinensis and T. diversifolia extracts with an increase in their concentrations. As to Germination Speed Index, the data demonstrated a reduction due to the high mortality of seedlings subjected to G. globosa and T. catharinensis extracts and a late germination of seeds subjected to T. diversifolia extracts. As to the vigor of seeds, the smallest survival percentages occur at 2.5 percent for B. pilosa and at 10 percent for L.sativa.

Two fast screening methods (GC-MS and TLC-ChEI assay) for rapid evaluation of potential anticholinesterasic indole alkaloids in complex mixtures

The pharmacotherapyfor Alzheimer's disease (AD) includes the use of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEI). Recent investigations for novel AD therapeutic agents from plants suggested that Tabernaemontana genus is a promising source of novel anticholinesterasic indole alkaloids. In this work two fast screening techniques were combined in order to easily identify novel cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEI). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) of the less polar alkaloidic fractions obtained from the acid-base extraction of the stalk of T. laeta revealed thirteen monoindole alkaloids, four of them confirmed by co-injection with previously isolated alkaloids. The others were tentatively identified by mass fragmentation analysis. By gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) and using isatin as internal standard, affinisine and voachalotine were determined as major compounds. These fractions and fourteen previously isolated alkaloids, obtained from root bark of T. laeta and T. hystrix were investigated for acetyl (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) inhibitory activities by the modified Ellman's method in thin layer chromatography(TLC-ChEI). Results showed selective inhibition of the alkaloids heyneanine and Nb-methylvoachalotine for BuChE, and 19-epi-isovoacristine for AChE, whereas olivacine, affinisine, ibogamine, affinine, conodurine and hystrixnineinhibited both enzymes. In addition to confirming that monoterpenoid indole alkaloids can be novel therapeutic agents for AD, this is the first report of the ChEI activity of olivacine, a pyridocarbazole alkaloid.

Dentre os tratamentos da doença de Alzheimer (DA) está o uso de inibidores da enzima acetilcolinesterase. Pesquisas recentes visando a descoberta de novos agentes terapêuticos naturais para esta doença sugerem que o gênero Tabernaemontana é uma fonte promissora de alcalóides indólicos anticolinesterásicos. Neste trabalho, duas técnicas de análise em mistura foram associadas de modo a identificar facilmente novos inibidores colinesterásicos. A cromatografia em fase gasosa acoplada a espectrometria de massas (CG-EM) das frações alcaloídicas apolares, obtidas da extração ácido-base do caule de T. laeta, revelou a presença de treze alcalóides monoindólicos, quatro deles confirmados por co-injeção com padrões previamente isolados. Os outros alcalóides foram tentativamente identificados pelo padrão de fragmentação de massas. Por cromatografia em fase gasosa com detecção por ionização de chama (CG-DIC) e utilizando isatina como padrão interno, affinisina e voachalotina foram identificadas como substâncias majoritárias. As frações alcaloídicas obtidas e os quatorze alcalóides previamente isolados das raízes de T. laeta e T. hystrix foram analisados quanto à atividade inibitória das enzimas acetil (AChE) e butirilcolinesterase (BuChE) pelo método de Ellman em cromatografia em camada delgada (CCD-ChEI). Os resultados revelaram uma inibição seletiva dos alcalóides heyneanina e Nb-metilvoachalotina para BuChE e de 19-epi-isovoacristina para AChE, enquanto que olivacina, affinisina, ibogamina, affinina, conodurina e hystrixnina inibiram ambas as enzimas. Além de confirmar que alcalóides indólicos monoterpênicos são agentes terapêuticos promissores para o tratamento da DA, este é o primeiro relato da atividade anticolinesterásica de olivacina, um alcalóide piridocarbazólico.

Ethnobotany & ethnopharmacology of Tabernaemontana divaricata.

Tabernaemontana divaricata a common garden plant in tropical countries has been used as a traditional medicine. However, no recent review articles of T. divaricata, particularly discussing its pharmacological properties, are available. This review presents the ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology of T. divaricata as well as its potential therapeutic benefits especially of the alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal constituents. Included, are the characteristics of 66 alkaloids isolated and identified from T. divaricata. Non-alkaloids including the enzymes, pyrolytic oil, hydrocarbons, terpenoid and phenolic acids are also documented. Chemotaxonomic aspects of each alkaloid as well as information regarding the pharmacology of crude extracts and individual alkaloids from T. divaricata have been assembled and appraised. The beneficial properties of T. divaricata are antioxidant, anti-infection, anti-tumour action, analgesia and the enhancement of cholinergic activity in both peripheral and central nervous systems. The augmentation of cholinergic function may be of therapeutic benefit for many neurodegenerative diseases, particularly myasthenia gravis and Alzheimer's disease.

Morfo-anatomia da plântula de tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC. (Apocynaceae) / Morphology and anatomy of the seedling of tabernaemontana catharinensis A. DC. (Apocynaceae)

Tabernaemontana catharinensis, conocida vulgarmente como lechero, es una especie perteneciente a la familia Apocynaceae. El actual estudio se refierea la morfología y la anatomía de la plántula de esta especie. Las semillas colectadas desde varios arboles creciendo en la planicie de la inundación del alto río Paraná, fueron germinadas en una cámara de germinación con una temperatura constante de 300C y mantenidas bajo luz fluorescente continua. El desarrollo de las plántulas ocurrió en un invernadero. La anatomía fue estudiada en plántulas fijadas en FAA 50. Este material fue seccionado transversalmente y las secciones obtenidas fueron teñidas en safranina y azul de astra. La plántula es fanerocotiledonar y epígea y presenta raíz axial, cuello, cotiledones ovados, epicótilo reducido, y eófilos lanceolados semejantes a los metáfilos. Su raíz es tetrarca. El hipocótilo y epicótilo tienen estructura caulinar y presentan crecimiento secundario cuya peridermis es de origen del felógeno en el ámbito epidérmico. Los cotiledones y eófilos son hojas dorsiventrales, con un estrato de parénquima en empalizada y algunas capas de parénquima esponjoso. Los cotiledones tienen un haz vascular colateral en la vena media, mientras en los eófilos el haz es bicolateral.

Tabernaemontana catharinensis is a species belonging to the family Apocynaceae. In this paper, the seedling morphology and anatomy of this species are described and discussed. The seedling development was analyzed until the first eophyll pair’s formation. The seeds were collected from several trees, in fragments of the semideciduous seasonal alluvial and submontaneforest located on the Upper Paraná River floodplain. The seeds were germinated at constant temperatures of 300C, using germination chambers and maintained under continuous fluorescent light. Seedlings development occurred in the greenhouse. The seedlings fixed in FAA 50 were sectioned by microtome and stained with safranin and astra blue. Seedling is phanerocotylar and epigeal with axial root, collet, ovate cotyledons, reduced epicotyl, and lanceolate eophylls similar to the metaphylls. Root is tetrarch. Hypocotyl and epicotyl have stem structure, and they present secondary growth with phellogen of epidermic origin. Cotyledons and eophylls are dorsiventral leaves, with uniseriate palisade parenchyma and some layers of spongy parenchyma. Cotyledons have a collateral vascular bundle in the midrib, while in the eophylls is bicollateral one.