RESUMO
Abstract In this research we analyzed the psychometric properties of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) in samples coming from four independent studies: university students (Study 1, n = 392; Study 2, n = 395), general adult population (Study 3, n = 316), and athletes (Study 4, n = 533). Through confirmatory analyses we evaluated the following models: (a) two-factor model (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), (b) three-factor model by Mehrabian (1997), (c) three-factor model by Gaudreau, Sánchez and Blondin (2006) and (d) bi-factor model (Leue & Beauducel, 2011), all of them in their oblique and orthogonal variants. Several models presented an acceptable fit, but only after allowing correlated errors and excluding the items alert and excited. While orthogonal solutions of the three models showed the best fit in Studies 2, 3 and 4, oblique solutions presented the best fit in Study 1. Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability and omega indexes oscillated between .55 and .89. Considering the original theoretical model and the practical utility of the PANAS, we favor the model of two orthogonal factors, excluding the aforementioned items.
Resumen En esta investigación analizamos las propiedades psicométricas del Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) en muestras de cuatro estudios independientes: estudiantes universitarios (Estudio 1, n = 392; Estudio 2, n = 395), población general adulta (Estudio 3, n = 316) y atletas (Estudio 4, n = 533). Mediante análisis confirmatorios evaluamos los siguientes modelos: (a) dos factores (Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 1988), (b) tres factores por Mehrabian (1997), (c) tres factores por Gaudreau, Sánchez and Blondín (2006) y (d) bi-factorial (Leue & Beauducel, 2011), todos en sus variantes oblicua y ortogonal. Varios modelos presentaron un ajuste aceptable, pero solo después de permitir correlacionar los errores y excluir los ítems alerta y excitado. Mientras que las soluciones ortogonales de los tres modelos mostraron un mejor ajuste en los Estudios 2, 3 y 4, las soluciones oblicuas presentaron un mejor ajuste en el Estudio 1. El alfa de Cronbach, la confiabilidad compuesta y el índice omega oscilaron entre .55 y .89. Considerando el modelo teórico original y la utilidad práctica del PANAS, nos inclinamos hacia el modelo de dos factores ortogonales, excluyendo los ítems antes mencionados.
RESUMO
Resumen La propensión al riesgo es una decisión acerca de involucrarse o evitar los riesgos; tiene un aspecto general y otro específico. La premisa es que debe abarcar varios dominios y evaluarse temporalmente, ya que las inconsistencias en las aproximaciones al riesgo pueden deberse al nivel de propensión, las demandas de la situación, sexo, edad y experiencia pasada. El objetivo del estudio fue adaptar a deportistas cordobeses el índice de toma de riesgos; una medida simple y corta con formato de respuesta Likert donde las personas deben puntuar su frecuencia de asunción de riesgos en el presente y pasado en seis dominios distintos y, además, realizar análisis de diferencias entre grupos en función de variables socio-demográficas y deportivas, así como análisis de correlación entre las variables propensión al riesgo y ocurrencia de lesiones deportivas. Primero, el índice de toma de riesgos es una escala válida y consistente para evaluar propensión al riesgo en deportistas; el análisis factorial confirmatorio indicó que el ajuste de los datos al modelo teórico planteado es satisfactorio. La confiabilidad mostró índices elevados. Segundo, se hallaron diferencias en la propensión al riesgo en función del sexo, la edad y la modalidad deportiva, así como un efecto de interacción entre estas variables. Tercero, se encontraron correlaciones bajas y positivas entre propensión y ocurrencia de lesiones deportivas. Se sugiere, a futuro, evaluar diferencias entre grupos contemplando el tipo de deporte, analizar esta variable en deportes de riesgo y profundizar el estudio de esta variable en población deportiva.
Abstract Risk propensity is a decision which entails either becoming involved in - or avoiding risks. Risk propensity has a general and specific aspect. The premise is that risk propensity has to encompass several domains and a temporal dimension. The level of propensity, situational demand, gender, age and past experience produce inconsistency in risk approaches. An instrumental study was developed to adapt the Risk Taking Index (RTI) in athletes from Córdoba, Argentina. The RTI is a simple and short measure with a Likert response format where people must rate their risk propensity in the present and past in six domains. In addition, differences between groups were performed, based on socio-demographic and sports variables, as well as correlation analysis between risk propensity and sports injuries occurrence. First, it was found that the RTI is a valid and consistent scale for assessing risk propensity in athletes. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the fit of the data to the theoretical model is satisfactory and reliability analysis showed high rates. Secondly, differences in risk propensity were found based on sex, age, and sports modality, as well as an interaction effect between these variables. Thirdly, small and positive associations were found between risk propensity and occurrence of both current and past sports injuries. In the future, it is suggested to evaluate differences between groups contemplating the type of sport, analizing risk in risky sports and delving into the study of this variable in the sports population.
RESUMO
La ansiedad es un proceso afectivo que recibió mucha atención en Psicología del Deporte, ya que por sus características es un ámbito fructífero para estudiar este proceso. En Argentina no se hallaron instrumentos adaptados que evalúen este constructo en ámbitos deportivos. El objetivo del estudio realizado fue adaptar el Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (Cox, Martens & Russell, 2003) a una población de deportistas argentinos. Siguiendo la teoría multidimensional de la ansiedad de Martens (1974), este inventario posee 17 ítems distribuidos en tres factores: Ansiedad Somática (AS), Ansiedad Cognitiva (AC) y Autoconfianza (ACF). Se realizaron tres estudios instrumentales y uno de diferencias entre grupos para analizar si existen diferencias en los niveles de ansiedad en función del sexo, deporte y modalidad deportiva (individual - grupal). El estudio de entrevistas cognitivas posibilitó la ampliación del número de ítems por factor. Así, se analizó la estructura interna de 22 ítems mediante un análisis factorial confirmatorio. El inventario replicó la estructura factorial original con 8 ítems para ACF,7 para AS y 6 para AC. La confiabilidad presentó valores moderados a altos (de ρ = .84 a .96). Finalmente, se hallaron diferencias en función del sexo, deporte y modalidad deportiva en los niveles de AC y AS, mientras que las diferencias en ACF sólo se hallaron en función del sexo. El inventario posee adecuadas propiedades psicométricas y por lo tanto, es apropiado para la evaluación de la ansiedad estado competitiva en población deportiva argentina. Se espera que futuros estudios analicen las diferencias en los niveles de ansiedad considerando otros deportes, controlen el efecto de la edad y analicen la validez convergente del inventario.
Participating and/or competing in sports have certain characteristics that make the field of sports a productive one for the study of affective processes such as anxiety. It makes sense, then, that anxiety is a process that has received much attention in Sports Psychology since its beginnings as a discipline. Despite this, in Argentina there are currently no instruments to assess this construct in relation to sports. The aim of the present study was to adapt the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2R - Cox, Martens, & Russell, 2003) for use with Argentinean athletes. The CSAI-2R is composed of 17 items measuring three constructs, following Martens multidimensional anxiety theory (1974): Somatic Anxiety (SA), Cognitive Anxiety (CA), and Self-Confidence (SC). Three instrumental studies were carried out: cognitive interviews, a rating study and internal structure, and one of internal consistency. Finally, a group differences study was conducted. The cognitive interviews consisted in evaluating question comprehension by 10 athletes between the ages of 18 and 27 using a verbal probing technique. For the rating study, two experts in Sports Psychology and Psychometry judged the inventory's items in terms of their quality, as well as their congruence to the factors of interest. Lastly, for the studies of internal consistency and structure and of group differences study, the CSAI-2R was administered to 357 athletes 15 to 45 minutes prior to competing. The sample was made up of 162 females athletes and 195 males athletes between the ages of 11 and 47 (M = 21.83, SD = 5.90) overall averaging 9.18 years practicing their respective sports and all having competed at a regional to international level at least once a year (M = 2.94, SD = 2.38). The cognitive interviews helped clarify items, as well as add new ones (13 items) to be tested in subsequent studies. The rating study revealed complete agreement between the judges as regards congruence (k = 1.00; p < .05), although 8 items had to be eliminated due to poor quality (< 3). Thus, the final version the CSAI-2R replicated the original factorial structure with a total of 21 items. One item was eliminated and two had to be replaced because their factorial weight was below the established threshold of .40. Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed adequate indexes (CFI.954, TLI .948 RMSEA .062, 90% CI .055 .070, WRMR 1.199). Internal consistency of the inventory showed moderate to high composite reliability values, (from .84 to .90). Overall, the composite reliability for CSAI-2R was .96. Regarding sex differences, t tests yielded statistical differences in the levels of CA (Mmen = 11.32, Mwomen = 10.12, t(347) = 3.24, p < .05), SA (Mmen = 9.61, Mwomen = 10.81, t(347) = 3.81; p < .05), and SC (Mmen = 26.01, Mwomen = 24.55,t(347) = -2.87, p < .05). Also, sport modalities (group-individual) showed differences in SA (Mindividual = 10.89, Mgroup = 9.87, t (346) = 2.83, p < .05, d = .32) and AC (Mindividual = 9.94, Mgrupal = 10.94, t (347) = -2.47, p < .05, d = -.29). Finally, ANOVA showed differences in SA, F(3,345) = 4.39, p < .05 and CA, F(3, 345) = 3.31, p < .05 between sport type; Tukey post hoc tests showed that martial arts practitioners had higher levels of SA than soccer and hockey practitioners and lower levels of CA than field hockey practitioners. The CSAI-2R demonstrates good psychometric properties and, therefore, is an adequate instrument to assess competitive state-anxiety in Argentinian athletes. However, new instrumental studies are needed in order to check convergent validity and include new sports. Also, socio-demographic variables like age need to be taken into account in group differences studies.