Community-driven evaluation of E. coli levels in domestic-use underground water sources in Angono, Philippines

@#<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Objectives:</strong> The authors considered the community-based on-site water sampling-surveys case-study in Angono, Rizal, in the Republic of the Philippines. The study was designed to determine whether individual citizens within the community could successfully collaborate in order to develop a method for quantification of E. coli levels in water (especially underground water) for domestic use.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods:</strong> We used techniques that had been validated in Japan for on-site evaluation of E. coli. These simple techniques enabled the on-site quantification of E. coli levels in multiple water sources, including underground water.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Results:</strong> The techniques used in Japan were successfully adopted in the Philippines, and we cooperated with regional medical technicians, scientists, and citizens, in order to develop a system where ultimately, the people in Angono can perform all the tasks related to on-site water quality evaluation. From societal and economic perspectives, we were able to reduce the traditionally high laboratory cost (including testing cost and samples transit cost) of coliform bacteria and E. coli evaluation to a lower, fixed cost level that is affordable for regional health centers and other sites.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusion:</strong> The transfer of a simple inspection method technology, under the supervision of an experienced Japanese research team, allowed us to validate the E. coli on-site quantification strategy at a regional level as "co-creation of science and society". In addition, beyond technology transfer, our collaborative efforts with scientists, regional medical engineers, and citizens, led to the creation of an NGO (non-governmental organization) that serves citizens in the town of Angono with regard to water quality assessment and certification activities.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Key Words:</strong> water quality, water management, community, local people, participatory approach, underground water, Escherichia coli, coliform bacteria, Philippines</p>

Concentrations of trace elements in daily life water consumed in Angono, Rizal, Philippines

Objective@#The present study aims to determine the concentrations of seven trace elements [chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), cesium (Cs), lead (Pb), thorium (Th), and uranium (U)] in tap, well, spring, river, and lake waters in the town of Angono, Rizal in the Philippines, consumed for drinking, cooking, bathing, and washing. In the town of Angono, both of the tap and purified tap waters produced in the refilling station are consumed as the water for drinking.@*Methods@#Water samples from six unpurified tap, six purified taps, 10 wells, two springs, two rivers, and one lake water were obtained in October 2015. Samples were analyzed using solution nebulization inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Results were evaluated for health risks of the trace elements in the water samples using WHO guideline values. The provisional WHO guideline values are as follows: Cr: 50 μg/L, As: 10 μg/L, Cd: 3 μg/L, Pb: 10 μg/L, and U: 30 μg/L. That of Cs has not been proposed yet. The WHO guideline value for the naturally occurring radioactive isotope 232Th in drinking water is 1 Bq/L, which is equivalent to 250 μg/L.@*Results@#The concentrations of the trace elements in the tap water samples were <0.5% of the WHO guideline values, except Cs and Cd, with those of Cd being ~9% of the WHO guideline value. Purified tap waters contained the seven trace elements in lower concentrations, with the exception of Pb, which may have been added in small amounts from equipment used for water purification. The concentrations of the trace elements in water samples from the wells and springs in Angono were more variable than those of the tap waters, and these were also below the WHO guideline values. The concentrations of Cs in all water samples were <0.3 μg/L. The trace-element concentrations of the waters from Angono River and Laguna Lake were almost the same as those of the well and spring waters.@*Conclusion@#At present, the concentrations of trace elements in daily life water consumed in Angono are at safe levels.