Trypanosoma cruzi down-regulates mechanosensitive proteins in cardiomyocytes

BACKGROUND Cardiac physiology depends on coupling and electrical and mechanical coordination through the intercalated disc. Focal adhesions offer mechanical support and signal transduction events during heart contraction-relaxation processes. Talin links integrins to the actin cytoskeleton and serves as a scaffold for the recruitment of other proteins, such as paxillin in focal adhesion formation and regulation. Chagasic cardiomyopathy is caused by infection by Trypanosoma cruzi and is a debilitating condition comprising extensive fibrosis, inflammation, cardiac hypertrophy and electrical alterations that culminate in heart failure. OBJECTIVES Since mechanotransduction coordinates heart function, we evaluated the underlying mechanism implicated in the mechanical changes, focusing especially in mechanosensitive proteins and related signalling pathways during infection of cardiac cells by T. cruzi. METHODS We investigated the effect of T. cruzi infection on the expression and distribution of talin/paxillin and associated proteins in mouse cardiomyocytes in vitro by western blotting, immunofluorescence and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). FINDINGS Talin and paxillin spatial distribution in T. cruzi-infected cardiomyocytes in vitro were altered associated with a downregulation of these proteins and mRNAs levels at 72 h post-infection (hpi). Additionally, we observed an increase in the activation of the focal adhesion kinase (FAK) concomitant with increase in β-1-integrin at 24 hpi. Finally, we detected a decrease in the activation of FAK at 72 hpi in T. cruzi-infected cultures. MAIN CONCLUSION The results suggest that these changes may contribute to the mechanotransduction disturbance evidenced in chagasic cardiomyopathy.

Differential tissue tropism of Trypanosoma cruzi strains: an in vitro study

We have previously demonstrated selection favoring the JG strain of Trypanosoma cruziin hearts of BALB/c mice that were chronically infected with an equal mixture of the monoclonal JG strain and a clone of the Colombian strain, Col1.7G2. To evaluate whether cell invasion efficiency drives this selection, we infected primary cultures of BALB/c cardiomyocytes using these same T. cruzi populations. Contrary to expectation, Col1.7G2 parasites invaded heart cell cultures in higher numbers than JG parasites; however, intracellular multiplication of JG parasites was more efficient than that of Col1.7G2 parasites. This phenomenon was only observed for cardiomyocytes and not for cultured Vero cells. Double infections (Col1.7G2 + JG) showed similar results. Even though invasion might influence tissue selection, our data strongly suggest that intracellular development is important to determine parasite tissue tropism.

Exoerythrocytic development of Plasmodium ga llinaceum in primary fibroblast culture of chicken embryo / Desenvolvimento exoeritrocítico de Plasmodium gallinaceum em cultura primária de fibroblasto de embrião de galinha

In this study we assessed the susceptibility of primary fibroblast culture of chicken embryo to infection of P. gallinaceum sporozoites as well as the initial development of exoerithrocytic stages. Fibroblasts were obtained from the chest muscles of chicken embryos and sporozoites were obtained from experimentally infected Aedes fluviatilis salivary glands. After 1h, 3h, 24h, 48h and 72h periods pos-infection, cell cultures were fixed and analyzed both by indirect immunofluorescent-antibody test with anti-circumsporozoite protein monoclonal antibodies and by transmission electron microscopy. Circumsporozoite protein was detected in all parasitic forms. The mean percentage of fibroblasts with adhered or penetrated sporozoites did not significantly increase proportionately to the concentration of parasites in the inoculum, and independently if fetal calf or normal chicken sera were used in the culture medium. It was noted that the longer the incubation time, higher the possibility of the sporozoites to adhere and penetrate to fibroblats. Spozoites were observed penetrating in the fibroblast after 3h incubation when 0.68% of the cells had adhered parasites. Differentiation and development of the exoerythrocytic forms was observed after 24h incubation, when an average of 0,14% of the parasites have already invaded the cells. Developing parasites were found until 72h, when only 0.04% of fibroblasts were infected. Fibroblast cell culture seems to be a valuable experimental tool for in vitro investigation of the exoerytrocytic cycle of P. gallinaceum.

No presente estudo, avaliamos a susceptibilidade de cultura primária de fibroblastos de embrião de galinha à infecção por esporozoítas de P. gallinaceum, assim como o desenvolvimento de estágios do ciclo exoeritrocítico. Fibroblastos foram obtidos a partir da musculatura do peito de embriões de galinha e esporozoítas foram obtidos de glândulas salivares de Aedes fluviatilis experimentalmente infectados. Após períodos de 1h, 3h, 24h, 48h e 72h após a infecção, culturas de células foram fixadas e analisadas através de imunofluorescência indireta empregando-se anticorpos monoclonais contra a proteína circum-esporozoíta e microscopia eletrônica de transmissão. Proteína circum-esporozoíta foi detectada em todas as formas parasitárias. O percentual médio de fibroblastos com esporozoítas aderidos ou já penetrados não aumentou proporcionalmente com a concentração de parasitos no inóculo e independeu se o soro utilizado no cultivo celular era soro bovino fetal ou soro de galinha normal. Foi observado que, quando maior é o período de incubação, maior é a possibilidade dos esporozoítas aderirem e penetrarem nos fibroblastos. Esporozoítas foram observados penetrando em fibroblastos depois de 3h de incubação, quando 0,68% das células tinham parasitos aderidos. A diferenciação e o desenvolvimento das formas exoeritrocíticas foram observados após 24h de incubação, quando somente 0.04% dos fibroblastos achavam-se infectados. A cultura primária de fibroblastos de galinha parece ser um valioso modelo experimental para a investigação in vitro do ciclo exoeritrocítico do P. gallinaceum.

Characterization of [Ca2+]i responses in primary cultures of mouse cardiomyocytes induced by Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes

Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan responsible for Chagas disease, employs distinct strategies to invade mammalian host cells. In the present work we investigated the participation of calcium ions on the invasion process using primary cultures of embryonic mice cardiomyocytes which exhibit spontaneous contraction in vitro. Using Fura 2-AM we found that T. cruzi was able to induce a sustained increase in basal intracellular Ca2+ level in heart muscle cells (HMC), the response being associated or not with Ca2+ transient peaks. Assays performed with both Y and CL strains indicated that the changes in intracellular Ca2+ started after parasites contacted with the cardiomyocytes and the evoked response was higher than the Ca2+ signal associated to the spontaneous contractions. The possible role of the extracellular and intracellular Ca2+ levels on T. cruzi invasion process was evaluated using the extracellular Ca2+ chelator EGTA alone or in association with the calcium ionophore A23187. Significant dose dependent inhibition of the invasion levels were found when intracellular calcium release was prevented by the association of EGTA +A23187 in calcium free medium. Dose response experiments indicated that EGTA 2.5 mM to 5 mM decreased the invasion level by 15.2 to 35.1 percent while A23187 (0.5 æM) alone did not induce significant effects (17 percent); treatment of the cultures with the protease inhibitor leupeptin did not affect the endocytic index, thus arguing against the involvement of leupeptin sensitive proteases in the invasion of HMC

Trypanosoma cruzi-cardiomyocytes: new contributions regarding a better understanding of this interaction

The present paper summarizes new approaches regarding the progress done to the understanding of the interaction of Trypanosoma cruzi-cardiomyocytes. Mannose receptors localized at the surface of heart muscle cell are involved in binding and uptake of the parasite. One of the most striking events in the parasite-heart muscle cells interaction is the disruption of the actin cytoskeleton. We have investigated the regulation of the actin mRNA during the cytopathology induced in myocardial cells by the parasite. T. cruzi invasion increases calcium resting levels in cardiomyocytes. We have previously shown that Ca2+ ATPase of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SERCA) is involved in the invasion of T. cruzi in cardiomyocytes. Treating the cells with thapsigargin, a drug that binds to all SERCA ATPases and causes depletion of intracellular calcium stores, we found a 75 per cent inhibition in the T. cruzi-cardiomyocytes invasion.

Basic surface properties of mononuclear cells from Didelphis marsupialis

The electrostatic surface charge and surface tension of mononuclear cells/monocytes obtained from young and adult marsupials (Didelphis marsupialis) were investigated by using cationized ferritin and colloidal iron hydroxyde, whole cell electrophoresis, and measuments of contact angles. Anionic sites were found distributed throughout the entire investigated cell surfaces. The results revealed that the anionic character of the cells is given by electrostatic charges corresponding to -18.8 mV (cells from young animals) and -29.3 mV (cells from adult animals). The surface electrostatic charge decreased from 10 to 65.2 per cent after treatment of the cells with each one of trypsin, neuraminidase and phospholipase C. The hydrophobic nature of the mononuclear cell surfaces studied by using the contact angle method revealed that both young and adult cells posses cell surfaces of high hidrofilicity since the angles formed with drops of saline water were 42.5º and 40.8º, respectively. Treatment of the cells, with trypsin or neuraminidase rendered their surfaces more hydrophobic, suggesting that sialic acid-containing glycoproteins are responsable for most of the hydrophilicity observed in the mononuclear cell surfaces from D. marsupialis.

Use of the detergent Triton in biochemical and biological research: a minireview

The use of nonionic detergents such as Triton X-100 and X-114, is of immense value in biological and biochemical research. These detergents have found numerous applications in the analysis of membrane proteins, enzymes, glycoconjugates and in the study of cytoskeleton structure. The method offers an excellent resolution when used in coordination with immunological methods such as, immunoelectrophoresis, immunoprecipitation and western blot analysis.

Trypanosoma cruzi: effect of phenothiazines on the parasite and its interaction with host cells

Phenothiazines were observed to have a direct effect on Trypanosoma cruzi and on its in vitro interaction with host cells. They caused lysis of trypomastigotes (50 uM/24 h) and,to a lesser extent, epimastigote proliferation. Treatment of infected peritoneal macrophages with 12.5 uM chlorpromazine or triflupromazine inhibited the infection; this effect was found to be partially reversible if the drugs were removed after 24 h of treatment. At 60 uM, the drugs caused damage to amastigotes interiorized in heart muscle cells. However, the narrow margin of toxity between anti-trypanossomal activity and damage to host cells mitigates against in vivo investigation at the present time. Possible hypothesis for the mechanism of action of phenothiazines are discussed

Trypanosoma cruzi: experimental Chagas' disease in Rhesus monkeys. II. Ultraestructural and cytochemical studies of peroxidase and acid phosphatase activities

Ultrastructural and cytochemical studies of peroxidase and acid phosphatase were performed in skin, lymph node and heart muscle tissue of thesus monkeys with experimental Chagas's disease. At the site of inoculation ther was a proliferative reaction with the presence of immature macrophages revealed by peroxidase technique. At the lymph node a difuse inflammatory exudate with mononuclear cells, fibroblasts and immature activated macrophages reproduces the human patrtern of acute Chagas' disease inflamatory lesions. The hearth muscle cells present different degrees of degenerative alterations and a striking increase in the number of lysosomal profiles that exhibit acid hydrolase reaction product. A strong inflammatory reaction was present due to lymphocytic infiltrate or due to eosinophil granulocytes associated to ruptured cells. The present study provides some experimental evidences that the monkey model could be used as a reliable model to characterize histopathological alterations of the human disease

Mechanism of action of a nitroimidazole-thiadiazole derivate upon Trypanosoma cruzi tissue culture amastigotes

Megazol (CL 64,855) a very effective drug in experimental infections by Trypanosoma cruzi, and also in in vitro assays with vertebrate forms of the parasite, had its parasite, had its activity upon macromolecule biosynthesis tested using tissue culture-derived amastigote forms. Megazol presented a drastic inhibition of [3H]-uridine incorporation, suggesting a selective activity upon protein synthesis. Comparing the three drugs, megazol was more potent than nifurtimox and benznidazole in inhibiting protein an DNA synthesis. Megazol showed a 91% of inhibition of [3H]-leucine incorporation whereas nifurtimox and benznidazole, 0% and 2%, respectively. These latter two drugs inhibited the incorporation of all the precursors tested at similar levels, but the concentration of benznidazole was always three times higher, suggesting different mechanisms of action or, more probably, a greater efficiency of the 5-nitrofuran derivate in relation to the 2-nitroimidazole. So, wes conclude that the mode of action of megazol is different from the ones of nifurtimox and benznidazole and that its primary effect is associated with an impairment of protein synthesis

Leishmania mexicana amazonenesis: heterogeneity in 5-nucleotidase and peroxidase activities of mononuclear phagocytes during in vivo and in vitro infection

Um estudo sobre o grau de maturaçäo das células do Sistema Fagocítico Mononuclear foi realizado durante a infecçäo in vivo e in vitro com a Leishmania mexicana amazonensis. A caracterizaçäo da diferenciaçäo das células fagocíticas foi obtida com a localizaçäo ultraestrutural de dois marcadores enzimáticos bam conhecidos: a enzima 5'-Nucleotidase marcadora de membrana plasmática de células maduras e a enzima peroxidase, presente em grânulos, marcadora de células imaturas. A atividade da enzima 5'-Nucleotidase foi encontrada apenas em alguns macrófagos, presentes no foco inflamatório, em projeçöes da membrana plasmática e em algumas vesículas citoplasmáticas. Macrófagos peritoneais de camundongo apresentaram a mesma reatividade para este marcador. Contudo a análise da atividade peroxidásica demonstrou a predominância da presença de fagócitos mononucleares imaturos nas lesöes crônicas induzidas neste sistema por Leishmania mexicana amazonensis

Biological aspects of the DM28C clone of Trypanosoma cruzi after metacylogenesis in chemically defined media

A caracterizaçäo biológica do clone Dm 28c de Trypanosoma cruzi em termos do seu crescimento em meio LIT, ciclo celular, infectividade para camundongos e interaçäo com células fagocíticas profissionais e näo-profissionais, mostra que o mesmo comporta-se como um fiel representante da espécie T. cruzi. As propriedades biológicas deste clone miotrópico näo mudam de acordo com a proveniência das formas tripomastigotas (i. e., de triatomíneos, de camundongos infectados, de cultura celular ou dos meios quimicamente definidos TAUP e TAU3AAG). Ainda mais, formas tripomastigotas metacíclicas do clone Dm 28c derivado do meio TAU3AAG apresentam um alto grau de infectividade para fibroblastos e células de músculo. Experimentos de ligaçäo de ferritina cationizada à superfície de tripomastigotas, mostram a existência de acúmulos ("caps") de ferritina em regiöes próximas ao cinetoplasto, todavia a natureza e o papel destes sítios aniônicos resta a ser determinado. Os resultados indicam que tripomastigotas metacíclicos do clone Dm 28c, obtidos em condiçöes quimicamente definidas, reproduzem o comportamento biológico de T.cruzi, tornando este sistema bastante apropriado para o estudo da interaçäo célula-parasito e para o isolamento de macromoléculas relevantes

Effect of drugs on Trypanosoma cruzi and on its interaction with heart muscle cell in vitro

As açöes de megazol, nifurtimox, benznidazol e allopurinol sobre o T. cruzi foram investigadas, através de microscopia ótica e eletrônica, pela análise do efeito direto sobre formas amastigotas e tripomastigotas e do efeito sobre a interaçäo de cultura de célula muscular cardíaca com tripomastigotas sangüíneos. A proliferaçäo de amastigotas em meio Warren foi inibida de modo dose-dependente por megazol, nifurtimox e benznidazol. O tratamento de amastigotas (25-50 micronM/24h) e de tripomastigotas (25 micronM/24h) levou a várias alteraçöes ultraestruturais nos parasitas. Estas três drogas tiveram também um efeito potente no tratamento de culturas de células cardíacas infectadas, quando adicionadas desde o início da interaçäo ou após um ou três dias de infecçäo. Os parasitas interiorizados mostraram um padräo de alteraçöes ultraestruturais semelhante ao observado no tratamento direto de formas amastigotas. A cultura primária de célula muscular cardíaca mostrou ser um modelo adequado para o estudo de drogas sobre formas intracelulares de T. cruzi e o ensaio de proliferaçäo de amastigotas em meio axênico, indicado para uma triagem inicial de drogas. Estes parâmetros nos parecem muito confiáveis para uma investigaçäo sistemática do mecanismo de açäo de drogas