Frustración, temperamento y vulnerabilidad social en bebés: estudio comparativo / Frustration, temperament and social vulnerability in babies: a comparative study

Resumen Antecedentes: la frustración se define como las respuestas del organismo que se desencadenan cuando existe una discrepancia negativa entre un incentivo esperado con el que realmente se recibe. Estas situaciones provocan respuestas conductuales, emocionales y neurofisiológicas análogas a las que ocurren con la presentación de estímulos aversivos o su anticipación. Existen investigaciones en bebés, pero pocos sobre sus asociaciones con diferencias individuales y ambientales y ninguno en población argentina. Objetivos: asociar la frustración, el temperamento y la vulnerabilidad social en una muestra de infantes. Metodología: se realizó un estudio asociativo-comparativo con una situación observacional estructurada donde se evaluaron a 22 bebés de 10 a 14 meses durante una tarea de frustración y su relación con el temperamento a través del Cuestionario de Conducta Infantil (IBQ-VSF) pertenecientes a dos extractos sociales evaluados con una ficha sociodemográfica. Resultados: se halló que a mayor extroversión, menor manipulación del objeto; y a mayor esfuerzo de control, menor fue la respuesta de morder, y viceversa. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en función del nivel socioeconómico. Conclusiones: se discutieron los resultados en función de la teoría de la frustración y las limitaciones del estudio, incluyendo recomendaciones para futuras investigaciones.

Abstract Background: Frustration is defined as the body's responses that are triggered when there is a negative discrepancy between an expected incentive and the one actually received. These situations elicit behavioral, emotional and neurophysiological responses analogous to those that occur with aversive stimuli or their anticipation. There is research on babies, but few on the associations with individual and environmental differences and none on the Argentine population. Objectives: To associate frustration, temperament and social vulnerability in a sample of infants. Method: A comparative associative study was carried out using a structured observation technique where frustration and its relationship with temperament were evaluated in 22 babies aged 10 to 14 months through the infant behavior questionnaire-revised very short form (IBQ-R VSF). The study population belonged to two social strata according to a sociodemographic record. Results: An inverse correlation was found between extroversion and manipulation of objects, and between effortful control and biting response. No significant differences were identified based on the socioeconomic level. Conclusions: The results were discussed taking into account the frustration theory, the study limitations and the recommendations for future research.

Emociones y frustración en bebés: el temperamento y la vulnerabilidad social como factores moduladores / Emotions and frustration in babies: temperament and social vulnerability as modulating factors

Las emociones son consideradas como mecanismos que se configuran a largo del tiempo para adaptarse a las demandas del medio ambiente, procurando de esta forma la supervivencia. Una de ellas es la frustración que se define como las respuestas del organismo que se desencadenan cuando existe una discrepancia negativa entre un incentivo esperado con el que realmente recibe. Estas situaciones provocan respuestas conductuales, emocionales y neurofisiológicas análogas a las que ocurren con la presentación de estímulos aversivos o su anticipación, tales como la ansiedad, el miedo, el estrés y el dolor nocioceptivo. El objetivo del presente artículo es: a) presentar los principales modelos teóricos de la emoción y frustración, su desarrollo y sus relaciones con factores individuales (temperamento) y ambientales (pobreza), y b) hacer un relevamiento de la bibliografía existente sobre los efectos de la frustración en bebés de hasta un año. Se encontró que el temperamento contribuye a los niveles de emoción y frustración expresados por los infantes. Son necesarios más trabajos para evaluar la influencia del ambiente y en un segundo momento, realizar intervenciones que puedan aumentar la tolerancias a la frustración(AU)

Emotions are considered as mechanisms that are configured over time for conflicts to the demands of the environment, thus seeking survival. Frustration is defined as an organism response that is triggered when there is a negative discrepancy between an expected incentive and the one that actually receives. These situations provoke behavioral, emotional and neurophysiological responses analogous to those that occur with the presentation of aversive stimuli or their anticipation, stories such as anxiety, fear, stress and nocioceptive pain. The objective of this article is: a) to present the main theoretical models of emotion and frustration, their development and their relationships with individual (temperament) and environmental (poverty) factors, and b) to survey the existing bibliography on the effects of frustration in babies up to one year old. Temperament and vulnerability were found to have the levels of emotion and frustration expressed by infants. However, it will be necessary to carry out more studies to decrease the contradictory results and generate, in a second moment, those that can increase the levels of this ability(AU)

Intolerancia a la frustración y estrategias cognitivas de regulación emocional en la predicción de la agresividad / Frustration intolerance and cognitive strategies of emotional regulation in the prediction of aggressiveness

Resumen La conducta agresiva constituye un problema que afecta a los individuos y a la so ciedad. El Modelo de Agresión General integra un conjunto de variables que influyen en la pro babilidad de exhibir una conducta agresiva entre las cuales está la regulación emocional y la frustración. Esta investigación evalúa las relaciones entre la regulación emocional cognitiva y la intolerancia a la frustración. A 419 sujetos adultos se les administraron la Escala de Intoleran cia a la Frustración, la Escala de Regulación Emocional Cognitiva y el Cuestionario de Agresión. Se hallaron relaciones positivas en la mayoría de las estrategias desadaptativas cognitivas de regulación emocional y relaciones negativas entre la mayoría de las estrategias cognitivas adap tativas de regulación emocional con la conducta agresiva, y relaciones positivas entre todas las dimensiones de la intolerancia a la frustración y la conducta agresiva. El Análisis de Regresión Múltiple muestra que las variables que producen un cambio significativo en la agresividad son la catastrofización y culpar a otros, así como la intolerancia a la frustración referida a derechos. Mediante path análisis se verificó que estas tres variables mencionadas permiten explicar un 41% de la variabilidad en la agresividad.

Abstract Aggressive behavior is a problem that affects individuals and society. The General Aggression Model integrates a set of variables that influence the probability of exhibiting aggressive behavior, among which is emotional regulation and frustration. This research assesses the relationships between cognitive emotional regulation and frustration intolerance. A total of 419 adult subjects were administered the Frustration Intolerance Scale, the Cognitive Emotional Regulation Scale and the Aggression Questionnaire. Positive relationships were found in most of the maladaptive cognitive emotional regulation strategies and negative re lationships between most of the adaptive cognitive emotional regulation strategies with the aggressive behavior, and positive relationships between all the dimensions of the frustration intolerance and the aggressive behavior. The Multiple Regression Analysis shows that the vari ables that produce a significant change in aggressiveness are catastrophization and blaming others, as well as the frustration intolerance referring to rights. By means of path analysis, it was verified that these three variables can explain 41% of the variability in aggressiveness.

Comprendo y siento tu dolor: Efectos emocionales de viñetas sobre exclusión social en adultos / I understand and feel your pain: emotional effects of vignettes on social exclusion in adults

Resumen Se presentan estudios que evaluaron si los efectos emocionales inmediatos de la exclusión social se pueden provocar con viñetas. Estudio 1: los participantes (n=20) se dividieron en 4 grupos; dos leían una viñeta donde un niño era excluido de un juego; en los otros dos, era incluido. Cada clase de relato variaba según su modalidad: descriptivo o con contenido emocional. Los lectores contestaron a cómo creían que se sentían los niños en cuestionarios sobre necesidades básicas fundamentales (NBF, Williams, 2009), estado de ánimo (EA) y frustración. Las viñetas de exclusión, independientemente de su modalidad, produjeron un decremento significativo en las NBF, mayor EA negativo, menor EA positivo y mayor frustración respecto de los de inclusión. El Estudio 2 (n=103), intrasujeto, usó una viñeta de inclusión y otra de exclusión y los mismos cuestionarios del Estudio 1, agregando el EA y uno de Empatía Emocional para responder a "cómo se sintieron los lectores". Se hallaron datos congruentes con los del Estudio 1. Los lectores experimentaron mayor EA negativo, menor EA positivo y mayor empatía emocional ante el relato de exclusión comparado con el de inclusión. Estos resultados abren un nuevo campo de experimentación sobre el tema.

Abstract Humans have a fundamental need to connect socially with others. Being ignored and excluded, Ostracism, rejection and other forms of social exclusion, threatens this need, triggers painful feelings, and elicits a wide range of negative effects. The episodes that individuals register as social exclusion (SE) immediately induce negative effects and decrease the four basic psychological needs (i.e., belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence), decrease the intelligent behavior, decrease self-regulation, change the consumption, increase riskier behaviors, decrease the pain threshold, greater dislike of slightly aversive stimuli, altered heart rhythm, increased blood pressure, increased blood cortisol, digestive disorders and respiratory system, increased temperature in the nasal and perioral area, and decrease in pupillary size and greater activation of brain areas related to sensory pain. Two studies are presented that evaluated whether the immediate emotional effects of social exclusion can be provoked by reading a vignette. Study 1: participants (n = 20) were divided into 4 groups; two read a narration where a child was excluded from a game; in the other one, it was included. Each kind of story varied according to its modality: merely descriptive or including emotional content. The readers answered how they thought the children felt in questionnaires about fundamentals needs (Williams, 2009), mood state and frustration. The narrations of exclusion, regardless of their modality, produced a significant decrease in fundamental needs, higher negative mood, lower positive mood and greater frustration with respect to inclusion. The Study 2 (n = 103), an intrasubject design, used a narration of inclusion and another of exclusion, and the same questionnaires of Study 1, adding the questionnaire of mood and another of emotional empathy to respond "how the readers felt". Data were consistent with Study. 1. In addition, readers presented higher negative mood, lower positive mood and greater emotional empathy towards the exclusion story compared to inclusion narration. These results open a new field of experimentation on the topic.

Percepción de estudiantes y graduados sobre el estatus de la Psicología en Argentina / Perception of students and graduates on status of Psychology in Argentina

Hay evidencia que muestra que existen diferencias entre estudiantes y graduados sobre los puntos de vista acerca de la naturaleza de la Psicología. El objetivo del trabajo es evaluar la percepción sobre el status de la disciplina entre estudiantes y graduados de Psicología de Argentina con la Escala de Psicología como ciencia, basada en la de Friedrich (1996). Consiste en 20 afirmaciones que se deben puntuar con una escala likert, que va desde completamente en desacuerdo (1) a completamente de acuerdo (7), clasificadas en tres factores: F1, la Psicología es una disciplina análoga a la Biología o la Física; F2, la investigación llevada a cabo en entornos controlados de laboratorio es esencial para la comprensión de la conducta cotidiana, y F3, la conducta es predecible. El Factor 4 contiene ítems de relleno para ensombrecer el objetivo del cuestionario. La Escala se envió mediante un sistema on line y en forma presencial. Los graduados presentaron puntajes significativamente mayores que los estudiantes en los tres factores de interés. Los graduados de orientación cognitiva-conductual obtuvieron un puntaje medio que indica que están muy de acuerdo o de acuerdo con el estatus científico de la Psicología a diferencia de los estudiantes y psicoanalistas. Además, los estudiantes de los primeros años presentan puntajes significativamente más altos en F1 y F3 en relación a los de los últimos años. Los resultados se discuten en relación a la enseñanza de la Psicología.

One of the fundamental goals of education is for people to learn to differentiate scientific knowledge from the one derived from common sense and pseudoscience. Learning to thinks cientifically is considered an easy task. It is not natural to humans; it requires changing certain structures of knowledge towards notions that need reflection, and an important transformation of some conceptual networks that are involved in the information processing mechanisms natural of all living organisms. In the case of psychology, the conceptual change from folk psychology (or common sense) and pseudos-cience to psychological science is also difficult to teach, perhaps even more so than in physics or biology, as the latter are more developed, more remote from human problems and there are less epistemological controversies about their methodology. There is evidence of differences between students and graduates on their views about the scientific basis of psychology. In this paper, the perception of psychology's status was evaluated among psychology students and graduates from universities in Argentina using the Psychology as a Science Scale (Friedrich, 1996PAS). It's comprised of 20 items with a 7 point Likert style response ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). It is divided into three factors. F1: psychology can be considered as a science similar to biology or physics (4 items, e.g. A degree in psychology should be a Bachelor of Science rather than one in Arts or Humanities); F2: research conducted in controlled laboratory environments is essential for the understanding of everyday behavior (5 items, e.g. Being able to do experiments is as important to psychology students as for chemistry, physics or biology students); and F3: behavior is predictable (6 items, e.g. Although each person is unique, it is possible for science to find general laws to explain human behavior). It also has 4 filler questions (FR) to hide the objectives of the survey and control social desirability (eg. An introductory course in psychology should encompass the widest range of possible topics). Friedrich (1996) reported that the scale has an internal consistency coefficient alpha of .71 for a sample of students and Holmes (2014), reported alpha of .74 for graduate / teachers. For the sample presented, Cronbach's alpha was .74 for all items. The Spanish translation was done by the authors of the study and evaluated by two experts in psychology and English proficiency. Then it was administered to a group of psychology students to confirm the understanding of the items. The survey was administered both through an online system and in person. The main results show that students have significantly lower score than graduates in the three factors of interest. However, graduates who identify with a cognitive-behavioral framework or with an integrative-eclectic approach strongly agree or agree with the scientific status of psychology as measured in F1, F2 and F3, unlike students and psychoanalysts who scored significantly less in F1 and F3. Moreover, students of the first years of study have a significant minor score than students of the last years on F1 and F3(p < .05). This work has as limit that the sample is not representative and the questionnaire was not validated in its version in Spanish. However, the results are similar to those of other countries, although it was the first that discriminated the opinion of the graduates in function of the theoretical orientation. Future research confirms these results. These results are discussed in relation to studies in other countries and to the teaching of psychology.

Emisión de Conductas de TDAH por Niños "Normales" en Opinión de Maestros Argentinos / Emission of ADHD Behaviors by "Normal" Children according to Argentinean Teachers

Resumen Según el DSM-IV un niño que emite "a menudo" seis de 18 conductas debe etiquetarse con TDAH. Los maestros generalmente reportan la frecuencia de emisión "anormal". El estudio averiguó la frecuencia de emisión de conductas del TDAH por niños "normales". Maestros de primaria (N = 113) señalaron la frecuencia (0 = nunca; 3 = muy frecuentemente) con la que un niño "normal" emite en clase las conductas del TDAH incluidas en el DSM-IV. Según el 25.7% de los maestros, los niños normales emiten frecuentemente (más de cuatro veces por hora) seis o más conductas del TDAH. Las características sociodemográficas de los maestros y variables del contexto escolar se relacionaron con la frecuencia considerada como normal. Se concluyó que las conductas del TDAH son emitidas muy frecuentemente en clase por los niños normales. El juicio sobre si dicha frecuencia es o no anormal dependerá del subgrupo al que pertenecen los maestros. Por tanto, una misma conducta puede juzgarse como anormal por un maestro y como normal por otro. Los resultados son congruentes con la aproximación psicológica a la conducta anormal que postula que cada observador juzgará como normal o anormal una conducta conforme su propio criterio, determinado por factores culturales.

Abstract According to the DSM-IV a child that "often" emits at least six of 18 behaviors should be diagnosed with ADHD. Generally teachers are the first to report the "abnormal" frequency of behaviors of their students. The study aimed at determining the frequency of emission of ADHD behaviors by a "normal" student during class hours. Elementary school teachers (N = 113) reported in a 4-point scale (0 = never; 3 = very frequently) the frequency with which a "normal" child emits in class the ADHD behaviors included in the DSM-IV. Results showed that according to 25.7% of the teachers, "normal" children emit frequently (i.e., more than four times per hour) six or more ADHD behaviors. Results also showed that the sociodemographic characteristics of the teachers and school-situational variables were related to the frequency of a beha vior that was deemed as normal. It was concluded that ADHD behaviors are emitted quite frequently by normal children du ring class hours. The judgment on whether that frequency is or not normal will depend of the subgroup to which each teacher belongs. Thus, a same behavior could be judged as normal by one teacher and as abnormal by another. The results are in accordance with the psychological approximation to abnormal behavior that states that each observer will judge a behavior as normal or as abnormal according to his/her own criteria determined by cultural standards.

Assessment of Environmental Quality, Degree of Optimism, and the Assignment of Responsibility Regarding the State of the Environment in Latin America / Evaluación de la Calidad Ambiental, Grado de Optimismo y Asignación de Responsabilidad con Respecto al Estado del Ambiente en Latinoamérica

This study explores the assessments made by the inhabitants of eight Latin American countries regarding the current state of the environment, at a local, national and global scale, and how it is perceived looking ahead to the future. It also examines the assignment of responsibility in the future management of the environment. A total of 944 people took part in the study from the eight participating countries, men and women over the age of 18 with different levels of education. The study uses the Environmental Futures Scale to which two relevant items have been added to assess the environment in the region, as well as the Assignment of Environmental Responsibility Scale. The results show differences between the countries, although in general they are pessimistic regarding the current and future state of the environment at the local, national and global level, with the exception of Brazil. In general, and with the exception of Brazil, in the countries surveyed, people assign a high level of responsibility to external social agents at the different levels, increasing their judgement of external responsibility at the national and global levels of analysis. The implications of these findings for environmental policy and education in the countries of this region are also discussed.

El presente estudio explora las evaluaciones realizadas por los habitantes de ocho países de América Latina en relación con su percepción sobre el estado actual del medio ambiente a escala local, nacional y mundial, así como las expectativas hacia el futuro del ambiente y la asignación de responsabilidades en cuanto a la gestión del futuro ambiental. Participaron un total de 944 personas de ocho países, hombres y mujeres de más 18 años con diferentes niveles de educación. Se aplicó la Escala de Futuros Ambientales a la que se le añadieron dos ítems pertinentes para evaluar el medio ambiente en la región y los ítems correspondientes a la Escala de Responsabilidad Ambiental. Los resultados muestran diferencias entre los países, aunque en general son pesimistas sobre el estado actual y futuro del medio ambiente a nivel local, nacional y mundial, con la excepción de Brasil. Igualmente en general, y con la excepción de Brasil, en los diferentes países encuestados las personas asignan un alto nivel de responsabilidad a los agentes sociales externos en los diferentes niveles, siendo más grande la responsabilidad asignada en los ámbitos nacional y mundial. También se discuten las implicaciones de estos hallazgos para la política del medio ambiente y las implicaciones para la educación en los países de esta región.

Evaluación del temperamento en perros de refugio y de familia. Un estudio comparativo / Avaliação do temperamento em cães de refúgio e de família. Um estudo comparativo / Evaluation of the temperament of shelter dogs and family pets. A comparative study

Este estudio comparó el desempeño de perros de refugio y de familia en una batería de pruebas comportamentales de temperamento, con el fin de evaluar si existe una asociación entre las condiciones de alojamiento en refugios (restricción social y espacial) y la aparición de alteraciones del comportamiento. Se utilizaron 30 perros domésticos mestizos a los que se les administró una batería de cuatro pruebas de temperamento: sociabilidad y miedo interespecífico, entrenabilidad, agresión interespecífica y miedo no social. Los resultados muestran que, comparados con los perros de familia, los perros de refugio permanecieron más tiempo cerca de la experimentadora en la prueba de sociabilidad y presentaron puntuaciones significativamente más elevadas en la prueba de miedo no-social.

The study compared the performance of shelter dogs and family pets in a battery of behavioral temperament tests, in order to evaluate whether there is an association between the living conditions in shelters (social and spatial restriction) and alterations of behavior. Thirty half-breed house dogs were given a battery of four temperament tests: sociability and interspecific fear, trainability, interspecific aggression, and non-social fear. Results show that, compared to family pets, shelter dogs remained close to the experimenter for a longer period during the sociability test and their scores were significantly higher in the non-social fear test.

Este estudo comparou o desempenho de cães de refúgio e de família em uma série de provas comportamentais de temperamento, com o objetivo de avaliar se existe uma associação entre as condições de alojamento em refúgios (restrição social e espacial) e o surgimento de alterações do comportamento. Utilizaram-se 30 cães domésticos mestiços aos quais foram dadas quatro provas de temperamento: sociabilidade e medo interespecífico, treinabilidade, agressão interespecífica e medo não social. Os resultados mostram que, comparados com os cães de família, os de refúgio permaneceram mais tempo perto da experimentadora na prova de sociabilidade e apresentaram pontuações significativamente mais elevadas nas provas de medo não social.

Relación entre ll tipo de alojamiento y las resuestas de mirada, sociabilidad y miedo-apaciGuamiento en perros / Association between housing type and gaze, sociability, and fear-appeasement responses in dogs

El objetivo del presente artículo es estudiar si el alojamiento en refugios caninos altera las respuestas de mirar a la cara humana, el acercamiento y las conductas de miedo-apaciguamiento (cola y orejas bajas, agazapamiento) hacia una persona desconocida y si existe una relación entre estos comportamientos. Para ello se evaluaron ocho perros alojados por al menos dos años en un refugio y nueve perros de familia, adultos, mestizos y de ambos sexos. La evaluación se dividió en dos situaciones: una prueba de sociabilidad consistente en la exposición a la presencia de una persona desconocida que se comporta de manera pasiva, y una tarea comunicativa en la que una persona desconocida se coloca cerca de una fuente de comida que está a la vista pero inaccesible a los animales. Los resultados muestran que en ambas pruebas los perros de refugio mostraron mayores conductas de miedo-apaciguamiento hacia la persona, pero no mostraron diferencias en sus respuestas de acercamiento ni en la mirada a la cara humana. Sin embargo, la duración de la mirada en ambos grupos fue mayor en la tarea comunicativa, en la que había comida, a diferencia de la prueba de sociabilidad. En conclusión, el alojamiento en refugios alteraría algunas respuestas vinculadas al miedo-apaciguamiento, modificando la calidad del vínculo que puede establecerse entre ambas especies.

The aim of this work is to study the effects of housing conditions, shelter versus family house, on gaze response as well as on sociability and fear-appeasement (tail and ears down and crouching) behaviors. Also, the objective is to analyze whether there is a relationship between these behaviors. Eight shelter and nine family dogs, adult, both sexes and mixed breeds were assessed in a sociability test in which dogs were exposed to the presence of an unknown human who acted passively and a communicative task in which a person remain near a visible but unreachable source of food. Results showed that, in both tests, shelter dogs showed more fear-appeasement behaviors than family dogs but there were no differences in their approaching levels to the human. Moreover, the groups didn't show differences in their gaze response towards the human face. However, gaze duration was longer in the communicative task, where food was present, than in the sociability test, in both groups. In conclusion, housing in a shelter could modify some responses of the dogs related to fear-appeasement towards humans affecting the quality of the bond between them.

Discriminación ee sabores en procedimientos de ambios sorpresivos del reforzaddor durante la temprana ontogenia de a rata / Tastediscriminattion during the earlyontogeny of the rat in procedurres involving surprising changes in reinforcement

Este estudio evaluó la respuesta consumatoria de ratas infantes ante diferentes magnitudes de soluciones azucaradas y luego de su devaluación o extinción, con el objetivo de detectar la preferencia de las soluciones y la existencia de efectos de contraste y de magnitud del reforzamiento en la extinción. En el Experimento 1 se expuso ratas de 8-10 días postnatales (DPN) a diferentes concentraciones de sacarosa (12%, 10%, 5% ó 2%; fase de precambio) a las que se las devaluó al 2% (fase de postcambio). En el Experimento 2, dos grupos de 10-14 DPN recibieron soluciones al 12% ó 2% en la fase de precambio y 2% en la de postcambio. En ambos experimentos se observó que, durante la primera fase, el grupo 12% exhibió un mayor porcentaje de ganancia de peso que los demás grupos, pero no hubo diferencias entre los grupos en la fase de post-cambio. En el Experimento 3 se evaluó el efecto de magnitud del refuerzo en la extinción en ratas de 7-12 DPN, utilizando agua en la segunda fase. Se halló un efecto de magnitud del refuerzo en la adquisición, sin embargo, no hubo diferencias entre grupos en la segunda fase. En el Experimento 4 se utilizó un procedimiento de contraste anticipatorio (CA) con ratas de 10-16 DPN. Los animales exhibieron nuevamente un efecto de magnitud del refuerzo pero no se observó CA. Estos resultados indican que: (a) al menos desde los 8 DPN las ratas discriminan diferentes concentraciones de sacarosa y que prefieren la del 12%, y que (b) hasta la segunda semana de vida los animales consumen los reforzadores en función de su valores absolutos. Los resultados se discuten en términos de la ontogenia del aprendizaje de los efectos paradójicos del reforzamiento y su vinculación con la teoría de Amsel.

This study evaluated consummatory responses in infant rats exposed to different magnitude of reward, and after the devaluation (i.e., consummatory successive negative contrast) or omission (i.e., extinction) of reward. In Experiment 1, 8-10 post-natal days (PND) pups were intraorally infused with 12%, 10%, 5% or 2% sucrose (preshift phase, 2 daily trials). Subsequently, all groups received 2% sucrose (postshift phase). In Experiment 2, 10-14 day-old pups received 12% or 2% sucrose in 4 daily trials in the preshift phase, followed by 2% in a postshift trial. Both experiments indicated that during preshift, animals exposed to 12% sucrose exhibited higher sucrose consumption than those receiving lower concentration solutions. This phenomenon, indicative of a magnitude of reinforcement effect was not accompanied by evidence of successive negative contrast. In Experiment 3 we evaluated the magnitude of reinforcement extinction effect in 7-12 PND rats. Animals received 12% sucrose or water in preshift phase and both groups received a neutral solution (i.e., water) in the second phase. A magnitude of reinforcement acquisition effect was again observed, yet there were no differences between groups in extinction phase. In Experiment 4 we used an anticipatory contrast procedure in 10-16 PND pups. A magnitude of reinforcement, but not an anticipatory contrast effect was observed. Overall the results indicate that: (a) rats from - at least- 8 PND discriminate between different concentrations of sucrose, and (b) until the second week of life the response to rewards is mainly regulated by their absolute value and not by their relative value. Results are discussed terms of the ontogeny of paradoxical effects of reward and its relationship to Amsel's theory.

Neonatal treatment with clomipramine and depression: A review of behavioral and physiological findings

Many times in science, the discovery of a treatment that has certain effect happens accidentally while the scientists are investigating another phenomenon. This is the case of the discovery of a possible animal model of depression by the administration of clomipramine (CLI) during neonatal days. Adult animals exposed to CLI in neonatal days showed alterations in REM sleep (for example, the decrease of REM latency); lower weight, disruptions in locomotor activity (the increase in activity depend on the dark / light phase in which the test starts, when the animals were tested in the light phase they found increase in activity, but no changes were observed when the animals were tested in the dark phase); less intracraneal self-stimulation, lower saccharin and sucrose consumption, less suppression of the consummatory behavior, sexual alterations in males (for example, expressed as a lower number of mounts and ejaculations; no alterations were found in the activity of the Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Gonadal axis and the level of testosterone was normal), higher alcohol consumption, disruptions in the agonistic response (CLI - treated animals were significantly less aggressive than control groups) and in learning (in the passive avoidance task and 8 radial arm maze) compared to untreated animals (rats that received vehicle during neonatal days). Several of these abnormalities could be reversed with those treatments that are effective for treating depression in humans (antidepressive drugs, nicotine and REM sleep deprivation treatment). These results were obtained in male rats of different strains and in hamsters, and at different months, the majority of them at 3-4 months, and some of them after the sixth, this could be because some changes were caused with the decrement in the age of the animals, although further research is needed to elucidate this issue. Neuroendocrinal alterations analogous to those found in human depression were also discovered in CLI - treated rats, although the data is contradictory. These include Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Adrenal axis alterations; while it is true that some experimental results found that CLI - treated rats have a higher basal level of corticosterone than controls, others found that not only do they differ in basal level, also during the stress situation; circulating corticosterone increases less and returns more rapidly to basal levels than control groups. For this reason, we can conclude that if alterations in the HPA axis indeed exist in CLI - treated animals, it is still unclear in which way the deregulation is manifested. Other results support the hypothesis that alterations found in CLI - treated animals are due to alterations in serotoninergic transmission during a critical period of development, such as the neonatal stage; more specifically, a reduction in the hypothalamic concentration of serotonin, like a decrease in the neuronal firing in the dorsal raphe nucleus. An increase in cholinergic activity was also found, although the data in this field is not as vast as that found in relation to the neurotransmission of serotonin. All of these results suggest that rats treated with CLI during neonatal days present alterations in adulthood analogous to human depression, however other findings indicate that is not yet a valid model. Further research is needed, and we have to be cautious with the conclusions because there is some evidence suggesting that this is a promising model but other does not support its validity. If a model like the neonatal administration of CLI achieves the reproduction of some symptoms, neurophysiological and behavioral alterations of depression, the advantages are invaluable. In this sense, neonatal treatment with CLI is a very promising animal model for the study of depression.

El presente trabajo describe los principales resultados acerca de un nuevo y probable modelo animal de depresión. Este modelo se basa, paradójicamente, en la administración de un antidepresivo, clomipramina, a ratas neonatas. Cuando los animales alcanzan la adultez, muestran alteraciones comportamentales que pueden ser interpretadas como depresivas, como hiperactividad, descenso en la búsqueda de placer, anormalidades en el sueño, entre otras. Se analizan los posibles mecanismos neurofisiológicos y neuroendocrinos involucrados. A pesar de las limitaciones que ofrece un modelo animal, es importante cómo logra reproducir algunos síntomas hallados en la depresión y debido a esto las ventajas del mismo son invaluables. Además, pueden estudiarse los mecanismos cerebrales implicados en la patogénesis y tratamiento del trastorno que por razones éticas son impensables de llevar a cabo en humanos. Por ello, se considera de gran valor el estudio realizado con el modelo de clomipramina con la perspectiva de que se siga trabajando en la validación del mismo.

Evaluación objetiva de los tratamientos psicológicos: modelos basados en la ciencia / Objective evaluation of psychological treatments: science-based models

En los últimos años han aumentado las investigaciones clínicas que utilizan el método científico para su validación, en gran parte influidas por el movimiento de los tratamientos con apoyo empírico (TAE) iniciado en la década de 1990. Se presentan los antecedentes de los TAE, sus objetivos y resultados, así como dos modelos de intervención que complementan a los TAE: las investigaciones sobre qué tipo de relación terapéutica predice más el éxito en las terapias, y las que buscan optimizar los sistemas de atención de salud mental. Se concluye que la mayoría de los TAE son técnicas que se basaron en la psicología experimental y que el método científico es la mejor herramienta con la que se cuenta para enfrentar el complejo problema de la conducta humana.

The last few years have seen an increase in clinical research that uses the scientific method for its validation, mainly due to the influence of the empirically supported treatments (ESTs) movement that started in the 1990s. The article describes the background, objectives, and results of ESTs, as well as two intervention models that complement them: one that promotes research on the type of therapeutic relation that guarantees greater success of the therapies, and one that seeks to optimize mental health care systems. The conclusion is that most ESTs are techniques based on experimental psychology, and that the scientific method is the best tool available to address the complex problem of human behavior.

Correlación entre miedo incondicionado y la primera reacción a la disminución y extinción de un reforzador apetitivo / Correlation between Unconditional Fear and the First Reaction to the Decline and Extinction of an Appetitive Reinforcer

Cuando las ratas tienen acceso a una solución azucarada al 32% y luego la concentración disminuye al 4%, los animales consumen o permanecen en contacto con el bebedero menos tiempo que los animales que siempre consumieron la solución al 4%. A este fenómeno de Contraste Sucesivo Negativo consumatorio (CSNc) se le considera un modelo animal de frustración. Existe evidencia de que en una prueba de luz-oscuridad, las ratas prefieren permanecer en el compartimiento oscuro, lo que sugiere una respuesta de miedo incondicionado hacia lugares claros. Se presentan dos experimentos en los que se evaluó la preferencia de ratas en una prueba de luz-oscuridad y a un CSNc (Experimento 1) y a una Extinción Consumatoria (Ec, acceso a un bebedero vacío, Experimento 2) para evaluar la correlación entre la primera reacción a la devaluación u omisión de reforzadores con las respuestas de miedo incondicionado a los lugares oscuros. Las ratas que permanecieron más tiempo en el lugar oscuro permanecieron menos tiempo en contacto con el bebedero durante el primer ensayo de devaluación del reforzador (Experimento 1) y durante el primer minuto del primer ensayo de Ec (Experimento 2). Esos resultados se discuten en relación con las teorías de Amsel (1958), Gray (1987) y Flaherty (1996).

When rats have access to a 32% sucrose solution and the concentration is decreased to 4%, the animals drink less than those that were always exposed to the 4% solution. This phenomenon is called consummatory Successive Negative Contrast (cSNC) and is considered an animal model of frustration. Existing evidence shows that in a light-dark test, rats prefer to stay in the dark compartment, which suggests an unconditioned fear response to illuminated places. Two experiments were conducted in which the preference of rats in a light-dark test was assessed during a cSNC (Experiment 1) and during a Consummatory Extinction (Ec, access to an empty water tube, Experiment 2) in order to assess the correlation between the first reaction to the devaluation or to the omission of reinforcers with unconditioned fear responses to dark places. Results showed that the rats that spent more time in the dark place spent less time in contact with the water tube during the first reinforcer-devaluation trial (Experiment 1) and during the first minute of the first Ec trial (Experiment 2). The relation of these results and Amsel (1958), Gray (1987), and Flaherty's theories is discussed.

Aproximaciones eeóricas al estudio del contraste sucesivo negativo consumatorio / Theoretical approaches to the study of consummatory successive negative contrast

La frustración es un estado emocional que se produce ante la disminución u omisión de la cantidad o calidad de un reforzador apetitivo esperado en presencia de una expectativa de recompensas de mayor magnitud. Históricamente, varias teorías intentaron dar cuenta de los mecanismos implicados en el efecto de frustración. Flaherty (1982) realizó una de las primeras revisiones sobre este tema. En estudios recientes, algunas teorías se descartaron mientras que otras se fortalecieron. En su mayoría estuvieron orientadas a enfatizar los factores emocionales o cognitivos implicados en este fenómeno, mientras que otras surgieron para explicar los componentes que alternativamente pudiesen estar involucrados en la respuesta de frustración. En este trabajo se presentan las principales teorías del contraste sucesivo negativo, clasificándolas en emocionales, cognitivas, y por último, aquellas que intentan abarcar ambos tipos de mecanismos.

Frustration is an emotional state that occurs before the reduction or omission of the quantity or quality of an expected appetitive reward in the presence of an expectation of rewards of greater magnitude. Historically, several theories attempt to account for the mechanisms or processes involved in the frustration's effect. Flaherty (1982) realized one of the first reviews of current frustration's theories. In recent studies, some theories were dismissed while others were strengthened. Most were designed to emphasize the emotional or cognitive factors involved in this phenomenon, while others appeared to account for other components which In turn might be involved in the response of frustration. This paper refers to some of the different current theories that explain the phenomenon of successive negative contrast. First, emotional theories are explained, then the cognitive ones, and finally those that try to cover both types of mechanisms.

Efecto de renovación en el condicionamiento y sus implicancias clínicas / Renewal effect on conditioning and its clinical implications

El efecto de renovación se refiere a la reaparición de una respuesta condicionada por un cambio de contexto entre la extinción y su evaluación. Este fenómeno tiene relevancia a nivel teórico, ya que evidencia que en la extinción el aprendizaje no se destruye y a nivel aplicado, porque los tratamientos psicológicos que implican un proceso de extinción se realizan en general en un contexto diferente a aquel en el que se pone a prueba su eficacia y la respuesta puede reaparecer por el efecto de renovación. Este artículo revisa los procedimientos en los que se estudió la renovación de la respuesta, tanto del condicionamiento clásico como del instrumental, así como aquellos tratamientos que evitan su ocurrencia.

Renewal effect refers to the reappearance of a conditioned response by a context change between extinction and testing. This phenomenon holds relevance at a theoretical level since it shows that, in extinction, learning does not go under. Also at an applied level, because psychological treatments that relay on extinction processes are done generally at a different context than that where they are put to test and therefore the response can reappear due to the renewal effect. This article reviews the procedures among which the effects of both classic and instrumental conditioning were studied as well as those treatments that preventthem from occurring.

Estrés neonatal y frustración / Neonatal stress and frustration

El estrés neonatal altera la respuesta emocional de ratas adultas. En una de sus formas, el estrés crónico neonatal aleatorio, produce una reducción comportamental, neurofisiológica y hormonal en respuesta a presentaciones de estímulos aversivos. La devaluación u omisión de los reforzadores esperados por aprendizajes previos provoca respuestas similares al dolor, al miedo y a la ansiedad, y esta reacción se denomina frustración. En este trabajo se presentan dos experimentos en los cuales las ratas sometidas a un estrés neonatal aleatorio y sus controles sin tratamiento se expusieron a dos procedimientos experimentales de frustración: el contraste sucesivo negativo consumatorio (CSNc, Experimento1) y la extinción consumatoria (Ec, Experimento 2). En el CSNc, la respuesta del tiempo de bebedero de animales que pasan de recibir una solución azucarada del 32% al 4%, se compara con el desempeño de animales que siempre recibieron solución al 4%. En la Ec, los animales reciben durante la adquisición la solución al 4% y luego se les presenta el bebedero vacío. Los resultados obtenidos señalan que en el CSNc los animales expuestos a estrés neonatal presentaron una respuesta atenuada de frustración y en la Ec, una extinción más acelerada, en relación con sus controles sin tratamiento neonatal. Estos hallazgos extienden los efectos del estrés neonatal hacia respuestas provocadas por situaciones de pérdida o decremento de incentivos.

Emotional neonatal stress alters the emotional response in adult rats. In one of its forms, the chronic random neonatal stress, produces behavioral, neurophysiological and hormonal reductions, in response to aversive stimuli. Devaluation or omission of expected reinforcers for acquired skills provokes responses similar to pain, fear and anxiety and this reaction is known as frustration. In this paper we will present, two different experiments in which, both, rats that were subjected to random neonatal stress and the no-treatment condition, were exposed to two procedures of experimental frustration: the consummatory negative successive contrast (CSNc, experiment 1) and the consummatory extinction (EC, experiment 2). In the CSNc, the response time to drinking a glucose solution of 32% to 4%, compares to the performance of animals that always received a 4% solution. In the EC, the animals received the 4% solution during acquisition and were presented with the empty water source. The obtained results show that in CSNc, the animals exposed to neonatal stress presented an adecuate response to frustration and in the EC, an accelerated extinction, in relation to controls without neonatal treatment. These findings extend the effects of neonatal stress to provoked responses to situations of loss or decrease of incentives.

Comportamiento sexual y ansiedad / Sexual behavior and anxiety

En el presente trabajo se revisarán las investigaciones con animales no humanos que atañen a la relaciónexistente entre comportamiento sexual y ansiedad. Por una parte, los resultados más relevantes indicanque el comportamiento sexual posee un efecto de tipo ansiolítico o atenuante del estrés, que se manifiesta tantoen la conducta de los sujetos como a niveles fisiológicos o neuroendocrinos. Por otra parte, hay estudios quehacen referencia a la relación de signo contrario, es decir, cómo el estrés afecta el comportamiento sexual de losanimales.

The present work reviews the research about the relation between sexual behavior and anxiety in animals. Themost relevant results suggest that sexual behavior has an anxiolytic-like effect. This phenomenon is expressedon the subject’s behavior, besides the physiological and neuroendocrine levels. Also, the review includes studiesabout the opposite relation, it means, how the stress affects the animal’s sexual behavior.

Psicofísica comparada: Efectos de la pérdida de incentivos en ratas normales e inyectadas con etanol / Comparative Psychophysic: Loss of incentive effects in normal rats injected with ethanol

Un problema de la Psicofísica particularmente relevante para el estudio de procesos de condicionamiento es el de la relación entre las propiedades de refuerzo y físicas de los es tímulos. Papini y Pellegrini (2006) observaron que el nivel de respuestas de consumo en ratas expuestas a una disminución sor presiva en la con centración de soluciones azucaradas resulta similar, si la razón de cambio de las soluciones (concentración post-cambio / pre-cambio) es la misma. Por ejemplo, una disminución de 32 a 4% y una de 16 a 2% produjeron niveles de consumo similares. Estos resultados son acordes a la Ley de Weber y podrían implicar el desarrollo de procesos emocionales; algo que se ha establecido mediante el estudio de drogas ansiolíticas. En situaciones experimentales análogas en las que se estudió el efecto de contraste negativo de incentivo (con una disminución de 32 a 4%) se demostró que la administración de etanol en el segundo ensayo post-cambio produce una recuperación más rápida de las respuestas deprimidas debido a una disminución del refuerzo (Becker & Flaherty, 1982), en comparación con controles que recibieron salina. En el presente trabajo se informa un experimento que involucró ocho grupos de ratas y que buscó replicar ambos fenómenos así como estudiar sus posibles interacciones. Se hallaron resultados compatibles con los datos previos, pero no se pudo concluir si el etanol afecta de manera determinante los niveles de respuesta proporcionales observados durante disminuciones de incentivo. Los resultados se discuten en términos de su implicancia para el estudio de la Psicofísica Comparada.

A psychophysical problem that might be of particular interest in current research on conditioning phenomena, and that exceeds the area of sensation and perception, concerns the reinforcing properties of stimuli and their relationships to the physical measures of the stimuli. Stimuli acting as reinforcers are operationally defined as those which have the property of changing the probability of response output of an organism if they are presented in an ordered fashion in relation to other stimuli or responses. From a biopsychological point of view the scale in which this property is measured is referred to as the stimulus incentive value. Papini and Pellegrini (2006) observed that the level of consummatory responses in rats exposed to surprising reductions in sucrose concentrations is similar if the shift ratio of the solutions (preshift / postshift concentration) is the same. For example, a 32 to 4% downshift and a 16 to 2% downshift produced similar levels of consummatory responding. Pellegrini and Papini (2007) and Pellegrini, Lopez Seal, and Papini (2008) extended this observations to measures of anticipatory behaviours of rats in studies implementing runway, autoshaping, solid food and within subjects design. These results are in agreement with the Weber´s Law. The incentive downshift situations as observed in spaced-trials conditions are interesting in psychological terms because they might imply the development of emotional processes (Amsel, 1992; Flaherty, 1996; Papini, 2002, 2003). Therefore, the aforementioned proportionality in incentive downshift situations might also imply proportional emotional responses. The evidence favoring an emotional interpretation of behavioral regulation during incentive downshifts arise mostly from studies which used drugs with anxiolitic-like effects (for example, clordiazepoxide and ethanol). For example, in similar experimental conditions it has been shown that the administration of ethanol before the second postshift trial reduces the level of response depression due to incentive downshifts (Becker & Flaherty, 1982). Here we present one experiment with eight groups of rats designed to replicate both of these findings and to study their potential interactions. Groups differed in the concentration of preshift sucrose solutions (either 32 or 16%) and postshift solution (16, 8, 4 or 2%), which implied two different downshift ratios (.125 and .25); and in the drug condition [vehicle (S), or an ip. injection of .75g/kg ethanol (E) administered 10 min. before the second postshift trial]. In short, the eight groups were labeled as follows: 32-8S, 32-8E, 32-4S, 32-4E, 16-4S, 16-4E, 16-2S, and 16-2E. Results are in agreement with previous data, indicating, first, a strong significant effect of downshift ratio F(1, 34) = 19,15, p < .0001; and second, a small but significant effect of ethanol administration on the recovery from incentive downshift F(1, 34) = 5,09, p < .031. However, these results are not conclusive regarding the possibility that ethanol administration can modify the proportionality observed in consummatory responding in incentive downshift situations. Also important is the observation that the 32-4 and 16-4 conditions differed respecting its postshift consummatory performance (32-4 < 16-4); the difference was significant [F(1, 18) = 6,71; p < .018] and is interpreted as a special case of the successive negative incentive contrast effect. In his classic writings on Adaptation Level Theory, Helson (1964, pp. 448-449), argued that "The evidence shows that reinforcing agents behave like psychophysical stimuli being scalable on continua having neutral or indifferent regions and in being subject to both series and anchor effects". Present results are in agreement with this statement and their implications for studies on Comparative Psychophysics are discussed. It is suggested that further research with alternative anxiolitic drugs and experimental designs might be of interest.

Memoria emocional: efectos de la corticosterona sobre los recuerdos / Emotional memory: Effects of corticosterone on aversive memories

Las hormonas adrenales, administradas inmediatamente antes o después de una tarea de aprendizaje, modulan la memoria. Este efecto varía de acuerdo al tiempo y a la intensidad con que se incrementan las hormonas. La liberación o administración de glucocorticoides inmediatamente antes o después de una tarea, facilitan la memoria. Por el contrario, la elevación o administración de glucocorticoides antes de una prueba de aprendizaje, deteriora la evocaciónde la información previamente adquirida. En este trabajo se revisan los principales estudios realizados con animales y humanos acerca del papel de los glucocorticoides sobre la memoriade eventos aversivos. A su vez se describe el efecto de la elevación aguda y crónica de las hormonas adrenales sobre la memoria.

The adrenal hormones administered immediately before or after a learning task modulate memory. This effect varies according to time and intensity with which hormones increase. Therelease or administration of glucocorticoids 0before or after a task, facilitate memory. Althought, the elevation of glucocorticoids before a test of learning deteriorates evocation ofinformation previously learned. This paper presents a review of the animal and human´ studies on the role of glucocorticoids on the memory of aversive events. Also, this paper presents a description about the effect of acute and chronic elevation of adrenal hormones on memory.

Comunicación entre perros domésticos (Canis familiaris) y hombres / Communication between domestic dogs (Canis familiaris)

Domestic dogs (Canis Familiaris) have shown to have a series of cognitive abilities which allow them to respond to signals given by humans. Specifically, dogs are able to detect and respond to signals such as the human visual and head orientation, as well as signals given by humans with the hands. We review the literature on dog social cognition. The evidence shows that dogs' abilities are greater than those of other canines, as well as those of other genetically related species such as primates, but whose ancestry did not share as much the human environment. Dogs communication ability seems to be a product of the domestication process. The reviewed research also indicates the importance of learning processes in these abilities.

Los perros domésticos (Canis familiaris) tienen una serie de habilidades cognitivas que le permiten responder exitosamente a diferentes señales dadas por humanos. Se revisan estudios de cognición social en perros poniendo énfasis en aquellos sobre emisión y comprensión de señales entre ambas especies y en los de aprendizaje por observación de modelos humanos. Las evidencias muestran que esta capacidad es mayor a la que tienen otros cánidos y a la de especies estrechamente emparentadas genéticamente al hombre pero que no convivieron con él; parecen ser producto del proceso de domesticación; por otra parte, los procesos de aprendizaje permiten desarrollarlas al máximo. Es necesario integrar los estudios etológicos con los de la psicología experimental para llegar a comprender este fenómeno.