Registration of antimicrobials, Kenya, Uganda and United Republic of Tanzania, 2018

Objective. To determine the proportion of essential and non-essential antimicrobial medicines that are registered on the drug registers in Kenya, Uganda and United Republic of Tanzania.Methods We categorized all antimicrobials on the national drug registers and essential medicines lists of the three countries using the British National Formulary. We also categorized all antibiotics according to the World Health Organization access, watch and reserve (AWaRe) classification. We calculated the proportions of essential and non-essential antimicrobials that were registered by antimicrobial class and AWaRe classification. Findings In 2018, Kenya had 2105 registered antimicrobials, Uganda had 1563 and the United Republic of Tanzania had 1327. Of these medicines, 1353 (64.3%) were non-essential in Kenya, 798 (51.1%) in Uganda and 706 (53.2%) in the United Republic of Tanzania. Kenya had 160 antimicrobials on its national essential medicines lists, Uganda had 187 and the United Republic of Tanzania had 182; of these, 33 (20.7%), 50 (26.7%) and 52 (28.6%) were not registered, respectively. High proportions of antimycobacterial and antiparasitic medicines were not registered. Of essential access antibiotics, 14.3% (4/28) were not registered in Kenya, 8.6% (3/35) in Uganda and 20.5% (8/39) in the United Republic of Tanzania, nor were 25.0% (3/12) of watch antibiotics in Kenya, 14.3% (2/14) in Uganda and 19.1% (4/21) in the United Republic of Tanzania. Conclusion Suboptimal registration of essential antimicrobials and over-registration of non-essential antimicrobials may encourage inappropriate use, especially since non-essential antimicrobials do not appear on national treatment guidelines. Countries should prioritize registration of the antimicrobial medicines on their essential medicines lists

A "liberalização" do Serviço Nacional de Saúde da Inglaterra: trajetória e riscos para o direito à saúde / La "liberalización" del Servicio Nacional de Salud de la Inglaterra: trayectoria y riesgos para el derecho a la salud / "Liberalizing" the English National Health Service: background and risks to healthcare entitlement

Resumo: A recente reforma do Serviço Nacional de Saúde (NHS) inglês por meio do Health and Social Care Act de 2012 introduziu mudanças importantes na organização, gestão e prestação de serviços públicos de saúde na Inglaterra. O objetivo deste estudo é analisar as reformas do NHS no contexto histórico de predomínio de teorias neoliberais desde 1980 e discutir o processo de "liberalização" do NHS. São identificados e analisados três momentos: (i) gradativa substituição ideológica e teórica (1979-1990) - transição da lógica profissional e sanitária para uma lógica gerencial/comercial; (ii) burocracia e mercado incipiente (1991-2004) - estruturação de burocracia voltada à administração do mercado interno e expansão de medidas pró-mercado; e (iii) abertura ao mercado, fragmentação e descontinuidade de serviços (2005-2012) - fragilização do modelo de saúde territorial e consolidação da saúde como um mercado aberto a prestadores públicos e privados. Esse processo gradual e constante de liberalização vem levando ao fechamento de serviços e à restrição do acesso, comprometendo a integralidade, a equidade e o direito universal à saúde no NHS.

Resumen: La reciente reforma del Servicio Nacional de Salud (NHS) inglés a través de la Health and Social Care Act de 2012 introdujo cambios importantes en la organización, gestión y prestación de los servicios de salud pública en Inglaterra. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar las reformas del NHS en el contexto histórico del predominio de las teorías neoliberales desde 1980 y discutir el proceso de "liberalización" del NHS. Fueron identificados y se analizaron tres momentos: (i) sustitución gradual ideológica y teórica (1979-1990) -transición de la lógica profesional y de salud para una lógica de gestión/negocio; (ii) la burocracia y el mercado incipiente (1991-2004) -estructuración de la burocracia dedicada a la gestión del mercado interior y la expansión de las medidas pro-mercado; y (iii) la apertura del mercado, la fragmentación y la discontinuidad de los servicios (2005-2012) -fragilización del modelo de salud territorial y consolidación de la salud como un mercado abierto para los proveedores públicos y privados. Este proceso gradual y constante de la liberalización ha provocado el cierre de los servicios y la restricción del acceso, comprometiendo la integridad, justicia y derecho universal a la salud en el NHS.

Abstract: The recent reform of the English National Health Service (NHS) through the Health and Social Care Act of 2012 introduced important changes in the organization, management, and provision of public health services in England. This study aims to analyze the NHS reforms in the historical context of predominance of neoliberal theories since 1980 and to discuss the "liberalization" of the NHS. The study identifies and analyzes three phases: (i) gradual ideological and theoretical substitution (1979-1990) - transition from professional and health logic to management and commercial logic; (ii) bureaucracy and incipient market (1991-2004) - structuring of the bureaucracy focused on administration of the internal market and expansion of pro-market measures; and (iii) opening to the market, fragmentation, and discontinuity of services (2005-2012) - weakening of the territorial health model and consolidation of health as an open market for public and private providers. This gradual but constant liberalization has closed services and restricted access, jeopardizing the system's comprehensiveness, equity, and universal healthcare entitlement in the NHS.