Molecular detection of Apicomplexa protozoa in tissues from Alouatta guariba clamitans / Detecção molecular de protozoários Apicomplexa em tecidos de Alouatta guariba clamitans

The brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) is a primate species widely distributed in South America. Infections by protozoa are common in primates. However, studies on protozoa in primates in Brazil are scarce, so the goal of this study was to investigate DNA from the apicomplexan protozoa Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis spp. and Toxoplasma gondii in tissues of A. guariba clamitans. DNA extraction was performed on tissue samples from the heart, brain, liver, spleen, lung and intestine of six A. guariba clamitans from Santa Maria, Central Region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Conventional PCR was performed using 18S rRNA gene general primers for Apicomplexa and also specific primers to amplify Neosporaspp. and Toxoplasma gondii DNA. All animals were positive in the 18S PCR and the genetic sequencing confirmed the presence of Sarcocystis spp. DNA in the tissues of four animals belonging to at least two species (S. neurona and S. gigantea) and T. gondii DNA in the other two animals. One positive sample for T. gondii was genotypically characterized as atypical by the restriction fragment length polymorphism technique. N. caninum DNA was not detected in the tested samples. The presence of Apicomplexa protozoan DNA in the tissues of the six animals tested in this study highlights the importance of howler monkeys as maintainers of these pathogens in nature.(AU)

O bugio ruivo (Alouatta guariba clamitans) é uma espécie de primata amplamente distribuída na América do Sul. As infecções por protozoários são comuns em primatas. Entretanto, estudos sobre protozoários em primatas no Brasil são escassos, portanto o objetivo deste estudo foi pesquisar DNA dos protozoários Apicomplexa Neospora caninum, Sarcocystisspp. e Toxoplasma gondii em tecidos de A. guariba clamitans. A extração de DNA foi realizada em amostras de tecido do coração, cérebro, fígado, baço, pulmão e intestino de seis A. guariba clamitans oriundos de Santa Maria, Região Central do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Foi realizada PCR convencional utilizando primers geral do gene 18S rRNA para Apicomplexa e também primers específicos para amplificação de DNA de Neospora spp.e Toxoplasma gondii. Todos os animais foram positivos no PCR geral para Apicomplexa e no sequenciamento genético confirmou-se a presença de DNA de Sarcocystis nos tecidos de quatro animais pertencentes a pelo menos duas espécies (S. neurona e S. gigantea), e DNA de T. gondii foi detectado nos outros dois animais. Uma amostra positiva para T. gondii foi caracterizada genotipicamente como atípico pela técnica de polimorfismo do comprimento do fragmento de restrição. Não foi detectado DNA de N. caninum nas amostras testadas. A presença de DNA de protozoários apicomplexa nos tecidos dos seis animais testados neste estudo destaca a importância dos bugios ruivos como mantenedores desses patógenos na natureza.(AU)

Molecular detection of Apicomplexa protozoa in tissues from Alouatta guariba clamitans

ABSTRACT: The brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) is a primate species widely distributed in South America. Infections by protozoa are common in primates. However, studies on protozoa in primates in Brazil are scarce, so the goal of this study was to investigate DNA from the apicomplexan protozoa Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis spp. and Toxoplasma gondii in tissues of A. guariba clamitans. DNA extraction was performed on tissue samples from the heart, brain, liver, spleen, lung and intestine of six A. guariba clamitans from Santa Maria, Central Region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Conventional PCR was performed using 18S rRNA gene general primers for Apicomplexa and also specific primers to amplify Neosporaspp. and Toxoplasma gondii DNA. All animals were positive in the 18S PCR and the genetic sequencing confirmed the presence of Sarcocystis spp. DNA in the tissues of four animals belonging to at least two species (S. neurona and S. gigantea) and T. gondii DNA in the other two animals. One positive sample for T. gondii was genotypically characterized as atypical by the restriction fragment length polymorphism technique. N. caninum DNA was not detected in the tested samples. The presence of Apicomplexa protozoan DNA in the tissues of the six animals tested in this study highlights the importance of howler monkeys as maintainers of these pathogens in nature.

RESUMO: O bugio ruivo (Alouatta guariba clamitans) é uma espécie de primata amplamente distribuída na América do Sul. As infecções por protozoários são comuns em primatas. Entretanto, estudos sobre protozoários em primatas no Brasil são escassos, portanto o objetivo deste estudo foi pesquisar DNA dos protozoários Apicomplexa Neospora caninum, Sarcocystisspp. e Toxoplasma gondii em tecidos de A. guariba clamitans. A extração de DNA foi realizada em amostras de tecido do coração, cérebro, fígado, baço, pulmão e intestino de seis A. guariba clamitans oriundos de Santa Maria, Região Central do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Foi realizada PCR convencional utilizando primers geral do gene 18S rRNA para Apicomplexa e também primers específicos para amplificação de DNA de Neospora spp.e Toxoplasma gondii. Todos os animais foram positivos no PCR geral para Apicomplexa e no sequenciamento genético confirmou-se a presença de DNA de Sarcocystis nos tecidos de quatro animais pertencentes a pelo menos duas espécies (S. neurona e S. gigantea), e DNA de T. gondii foi detectado nos outros dois animais. Uma amostra positiva para T. gondii foi caracterizada genotipicamente como atípico pela técnica de polimorfismo do comprimento do fragmento de restrição. Não foi detectado DNA de N. caninum nas amostras testadas. A presença de DNA de protozoários apicomplexa nos tecidos dos seis animais testados neste estudo destaca a importância dos bugios ruivos como mantenedores desses patógenos na natureza.

Vascularization of the Alouatta belzebul brain base / Vascularização da base do encéfalo de Alouatta belzebul

We studied the arterial circle in the brain of five specimens of the Alouatta belzebul primate. The material had the arterial system perfused (water at 40°C), injected with stained latex (Neoprene 650), fixed in aqueous formaldehyde solution (10%) and dissected for vessel verification. The arterial circle of this primate is composed of two vascular systems: the vertebra-basilar and the carotid ones, which anastomose to close the arterial circuit. In the caudal portion of the arterial circle, there are the vertebral arteries and their branches: the rostral spinal artery and the caudal inferior cerebellar artery. The anastomosis of the vertebral arteries gives rise to the basilar artery. It presented an anatomical variation at the beginning of its path, forming a double basilar artery, called arterial island. In its course, it emitted branches giving rise to the rostral inferior cerebellar artery, the pontine arteries, the rostral cerebellar arteries, the satellite rostral cerebellar arteries and its terminal branch, the caudal cerebral artery, which presented itself in two segments: the pre-communicating one and post-communicating, joining the internal carotid artery and originating the caudal communicating artery. This group of arteries and anastomoses enclose the caudal portion of the arterial circle. From the right and left internal carotid arteries begins the rostral portion of the arterial circle, which consists of the right and left rostral cerebral arteries and the right and left middle cerebral arteries. The rostral cerebral arteries anastomose into a single trunk, giving rise to the interhemispheric artery, and in A. belzebul and Sapajus libidinosus, the rostral communicating artery is absent. The interhemispheric artery goes to the midbrain region and the corpus callosum knee divides into pericalous artery and callosarginal artery, which will supply the pre and post-central regions of the cerebral hemispheres of this species, as well as other non-human and human primates. It is noted that in the first part of the left rostral cerebral artery, there is a direct inosculation between the recurrent branch of the rostral cerebral artery and left middle cerebral artery to supply the entorhinal region. This fact also occurs in Pongo spp. The middle cerebral artery travels along the lateral sulcus where it emits several superficial branches to irrigate the superior and inferior lateral cortical regions of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. It is not part of the arterial circle but is the terminal branch of the internal carotid artery. A. belzebul can be considered to depend on two sources of supply to the brain: the vertebra-basilar and carotid systems, contributing to the intervention of veterinarians during clinical and surgical procedures in other primates, as well as the preservation of wild animals.(AU)

Estudamos o círculo arterial no encéfalo de cinco espécimes do primata Alouatta belzebul. O material teve o sistema arterial perfundido (água a 40°C), injetado com látex corado (Neoprene 650), fixado em solução aquosa de formaldeído (10%) e dissecado para verificação dos vasos. O círculo arterial deste primata é composto por dois sistemas vasculares: vértebro-basilar e o sistema carotídeo, que se anastomosam para fechar o circuito arterial. Na porção caudal do círculo arterial encontra-se as artérias vertebrais e seus ramos: artéria espinal rostral e a cerebelar inferior caudal. A anastomose das artérias vertebrais dá origem a artéria basilar. Esta apresentou uma variação anatômica no início do seu trajeto, formando uma dupla artéria basilar, denominada ilha arterial. Em seu trajeto emitiu ramos dando origem a artéria cerebelar inferior rostral, as artérias pontinas, as artérias cerebelares rostrais, as artérias cerebelares rostrais satélites e o seu ramo terminal, a artéria cerebral caudal, que apresentou-se em dois segmentos: o pré-comunicante e pós-comunicante, unindo-se a artéria carótida interna e originando a artéria comunicante caudal. Este grupo de artérias e anastomoses encerram a porção caudal do círculo arterial. Das artérias carótidas internas direita e esquerda, inicia-se a porção rostral do círculo arterial, ao qual é constituído pelas artérias cerebrais rostrais direita e esquerda e as artérias cerebrais médias direita e esquerda. As artérias cerebrais rostrais se anastomosam em um tronco único dando origem a artéria inter-hemisférica e em A. belzebul e Sapajus libidinosus, a artéria comunicante rostral se encontra ausente. A artéria inter-hemisférica segue para região média do encéfalo e no joelho do corpo caloso se divide em artéria pericalosa e artéria calosomarginal, que vão suprir as regiões pré e pós-central dos hemisférios cerebrais desta espécie, assim como outros primatas não humanos e humano. Nota-se que na primeira parte da artéria cerebral rostral esquerda, ocorre uma inosculação direta entre o ramo recorrente da artéria cerebral rostral e artéria cerebral média esquerda para suprir a região entorrinal, esse fato também ocorre em Pongo spp. A artéria cerebral média segue seu trajeto pelo sulco lateral onde emite vários ramos superficiais para irrigar as regiões corticais supero e ínfero lateral do lobo frontal, parietal e temporal, esta não faz parte do círculo arterial mas é o ramo terminal da artéria carótida interna. Pode-se considerar que A. belzebul depende de duas fontes de suprimento para o encéfalo: os sistemas vértebro-basilar e carotídeo, contribuindo na intervenção de médicos veterinários durante os procedimentos clínicos e cirúrgicos em outros primatas, assim como na preservação de animais silvestres.(AU)

Plasmodium infection and its association with biochemical and haematological parameters in free-living Alouatta guariba clamitans (Cabrera, 1940) (Primates: Atelidae) in Southern Brazil

BACKGROUND The influence of Plasmodium spp. infection in the health of Southern brown howler monkey, Alouatta guariba clamitans, the main reservoir of malaria in the Atlantic Forest, is still unknown. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to investigate the positivity rate of Plasmodium infection in free-living howler monkeys in an Atlantic Forest fragment in Joinville/SC and to associate the infection with clinical, morphometrical, haematological and biochemical alterations. METHODS Molecular diagnosis of Plasmodium infection in the captured monkeys was performed by Nested-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (18S rRNA and coxI). Haematological and biochemical parameters were compared among infected and uninfected monkeys; clinical and morphometrical parameters were also compared. FINDINGS The positivity rate of Plasmodium infection was 70% among forty captured animals, the highest reported for neotropical primates. None statistical differences were detected in the clinical parameters, and morphometric measures comparing infected and uninfected groups. The main significant alteration was the higher alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels in infected compared to uninfected monkeys. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Therefore, Plasmodium infection in howler monkeys may causes haematological/biochemical alterations which might suggest hepatic impairment. Moreover, infection must be monitored for the eco-epidemiological surveillance of malaria in the Atlantic Forest and during primate conservation program that involves the animal movement, such as translocations.

Combination of surveillance tools reveals that Yellow Fever virus can remain in the same Atlantic Forest area at least for three transmission seasons

BACKGROUND In Brazil, the Yellow Fever virus (YFV) is endemic in the Amazon, from where it eventually expands into epidemic waves. Coastal south-eastern (SE) Brazil, which has been a YFV-free region for eight decades, has reported a severe sylvatic outbreak since 2016. The virus spread from the north toward the south of the Rio de Janeiro (RJ) state, causing 307 human cases with 105 deaths during the 2016-2017 and 2017-2018 transmission seasons. It is unclear, however, whether the YFV would persist in the coastal Atlantic Forest of RJ during subsequent transmission seasons. OBJECTIVES To conduct a real-time surveillance and assess the potential persistence of YFV in the coastal Atlantic Forest of RJ during the 2018-2019 transmission season. METHODS We combined epizootic surveillance with fast diagnostic and molecular, phylogenetic, and evolutionary analyses. FINDINGS Using this integrative strategy, we detected the first evidence of YFV re-emergence in the third transmission season (2018-2019) in a dying howler monkey from the central region of the RJ state. The YFV detected in 2019 has the molecular signature associated with the current SE YFV outbreak and exhibited a close phylogenetic relationship with the YFV lineage that circulated in the same Atlantic Forest fragment during the past seasons. This lineage circulated along the coastal side of the Serra do Mar mountain chain, and its evolution seems to be mainly driven by genetic drift. The potential bridge vector Aedes albopictus was found probing on the recently dead howler monkey in the forest edge, very close to urban areas. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Collectively, our data revealed that YFV transmission persisted at the same Atlantic Forest area for at least three consecutive transmission seasons without the need of new introductions. Our real-time surveillance strategy permitted health authorities to take preventive actions within 48 h after the detection of the sick non-human primate. The local virus persistence and the proximity of the epizootic forest to urban areas reinforces the concern with regards to the risk of re-urbanisation and seasonal re-emergence of YFV, stressing the need for continuous effective surveillance and high vaccination coverage in the SE region, particularly in RJ, an important tourist location.

Aspectos ultrassonográficos, biometria e dopplerfluxometria ocular do bugio ruivo (Alouatta fusca) / Ultrasonography aspects, biometry and Doppler of howler monkey (Alouatta fusca) ocular bulb

Este estudo teve como objetivo geral descrever os aspectos ultrassonográficos normais das estruturas do bulbo ocular de primatas da espécie Alouatta fusca, determinando ainda os valores da biometria ocular, e os parâmetros da dopplerfluxometria ocular das artérias oftálmica interna e central da retina. Vinte exames ultrassonográficos oculares foram realizados em dez primatas da espécie Alouatta fusca clinicamente saudáveis, sem sinais de doença ocular ao exame oftalmológico. Procedeu-se a descrição ultrassonográfica das estruturas oculares e posteriormente a biometria foi obtida em quatro distâncias distintas: (D1) correspondentes à câmara anterior, (D2) espessura da lente, (D3) profundidade da câmara vítrea e (D4) comprimento axial do bulbo ocular. Na dopplerfluxometria foram avaliadas as artérias oftálmica interna e central da retina quanto ao índice de resistividade (IR), de pulsatilidade (IP), e as velocidades do pico sistólico (VPS) ediastólica final (VDF). Os valores de biometria foram submetidos a teste de comparação quanto ao gênero dos animais e cortes ultrassonográficos, utilizando o teste t de Student. O mesmo teste foi realizado para comparação dos resultados de dopplerfluxometria entre fêmeas e machos. A descrição ultrassonográfica das estruturas oculares e vascularização do bugio ruivo mostraram-se semelhantes a espécies como o cão, o gato e o homem. Os valores biométricos médios encontrados foram de 2,1±0,38 mm para D1, 3,7±0,30mm para D2, 10,4±0,78mm para D3 e 19,3±1,64mm para D4. Os valores de dopplerfluxometria da artéria oftálmica e da artéria central da retina foram respectivamente: VPS de 25,6cm/s e 14,6cm/s; VDF de 15,8cm/s e 10,7cm/s; IR de 0,7 e 0,5; IP de 1,4 e 0,8.(AU)

This study aimed to describe the sonographic features of normal ocular structures, the ocular biometry and Doppler parameters of the internal ophthalmic artery and central retinal artery of the Alouatta fusca. Twenty ocular ultrasonographic examinations were perform in ten primate species of the Alouatta fusca. Proceeded to the sonographic description of the ocular structures and later biometrics was obtained in four distances: (D1) corresponding to the anterior chamber (D2) lens thickness (D3) vitreous chamber and (D4) axial length of the eyeball. Doppler ultrasound evaluated internal ophthalmic artery and central retinal artery as for the resistivity Index (RI), pulsatility index (PI), peak systolic velocity (PSV) and end diastolic velocity (EDV). The values of biometrics and flowmetry underwent comparison test between genders and sonographic views, by Student t test. The anatomical sonographic description of the ocular structures and vasculature of the red howler were similar to species such as dog, cat and man. The biometric average values found were 2.1±0.38mm for D1, 3.7±0.30mm for D2, 10.4±0.78mm for D3 and 19.3±1.64mm for D4. The Doppler values of the ophthalmic artery and central retinal artery found were: PSV of 25.6cm/s and 14.6cm/s; VDF 15.8cm/s and 10.7cm/s; IR 0.7 and 0.5; IP 1.4 and 0.8.(AU)

Elección diferencial de frutos en dos especies simpátricas de monos y murciélagos frugívoros en el sureste de México / Differential fruit choice in two simpatric monkey species and frugivorous bats in southern mexico

ABSTRACT In order to identify the role played by plant species as a food source in the fruit election of dispersing agents (Alouatta pigra Lawrence 1933, Atelesgeoffroyi Kuhl 1820 and frugivorous bats), we developed a study in dry tropical forests in Yucatan, Mexico. We recorded the fruits consumed by frugivorous bats using collectors and, for monkeys, we implemented the focal animal method. The number of fruits consumed by primates (A. pigra and A. geoffroyi) and bats were recorded, 342 and 386, respectively. It was determined that bats deposited fruits with some percentage of pulp, while monkeys contributed more with a fruits without pulp (pairwise LSD contrast p < 0.05). Among the variety of fruit species in the diet of primates, we detected that A. pigra chose mostly not an abundant species such as Enterolobium cyclocarpum Jacq. Griseb. (1860) instead of those more abundant (Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen (1953) and Brosimum alicastrum Sw. subsp. alicastrum C.C. Berg (1972)). The type of fruit and seed handling caused by primates would be more beneficial to seed germination than those applied by bats. Moreover, this election and fruit handling could depend on the characteristics of fruits and space-temporal availability of plant species as a food source.

RESUMEN Con el objetivo de examinar el papel que juegan las especies vegetales como fuentes alimenticias en la selección de frutos de agentes dispersores (Alouatta pigra, Ateles geoffroyi y murciélagos frugívoros), se realizó un estudio en selvas secas en el sureste de Yucatán, México. Se registraron los frutos consumidos por murciélagos usando colectores y, en el caso de los monos, se implementó el método de animal focal. El número de frutos consumidos registrados para ambas especies de primates y murciélagos fueron 342 y 386, respectivamente. Se determinó que los murciélagos depositaron frutos con pequeñas cantidades de pulpa, mientras que los monos contribuyeron mayormente con frutos totalmente despulpados (contrastes por pares LSD p < 0.05). Entre la variedad de especies de frutos en la dieta de los primates se detectó que A. pigra eligió frutos de las especies menos abundantes como Enterolobium cyclocarpum Jacq. Griseb. (1860) en vez de aquellas más abundantes (Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen (1953) y Brosimum alicastrum Sw. subsp. alicastrum C.C. Berg (1972)). El tipo de manejo de frutos y semillas causado por los primates sería más beneficioso para la germinación de las semillas que los aplicados por los murciélagos. Además, esta elección y manejo del fruto podría depender de sus características y la disponibilidad espacio-temporal de las especies de plantas como fuente de alimento.

Diversidad y abundancia de primates y sus amenazas en el interfluvio de los ríos Napo y Putumayo, Amazonía peruana / Diversity and abundance of primates and their threats in the interfluvium of the Napo and Putumayo rivers, Peruvian Amazonia

En el nororiente de la Amazonía peruana todavía existen áreas con escasa información sobre primates, siendo una de ellas el interfluvio entre los ríos Napo-Putumayo, lo que motivó la conducción de este estudio para determinar su diversidad y abundancia, así como identificar las amenazas para sus poblaciones. Para este propósito se realizaron censos por transectos en octubre del 2007, setiembre del 2013 y noviembre del 2014 en tres sitios de muestreo. En 1040 km de transectos recorridos fueron observados 308 grupos pertenecientes a nueve especies, siendo Leontocebus nigricollis el más común (109 grupos) y Alouatta seniculus el más escaso (16 grupos). Grupos más pequeños de Lagothrix lagothricha lagothricha (8-11 individuos) y A. seniculus (3-5 individuos) fueron observados en Tamboryacu considerado como el sitio de muestreo de mayor perturbación. Asimismo, la densidad poblacional más baja estimada para L. l. lagothricha y A. seniculus también correspondió a este sitio de muestreo con 3.8 indiv./km² y 1.6 indiv./km², respectivamente, mientras que para el resto de especies no hubo mayores diferencias entre los sitios de muestreo. Entre las actividades, la caza y extracción de madera son las principales amenazas y responsables para la escasa población de A. seniculus y l. l. lagotricha, principalmente en la cuenca del río Napo.

Within the northeastern Peruvian Amazonia remain areas with scarce information on primates, one of them being the interfluvium between the Napo and Putumayo rivers. This lack of information motivated us to conduct a study to determine the diversity and abundance of primates within the area, as well as to identify the threats, which inhibit these primate species populations. For this purpose, we conducted transect censuses in three sampling sites in October 2007, September 2013 and November 2014. In 1040 km of transect walks we observed 308 groups of nine primate species, the most common being Leontocebus nigricollis (109 groups) and the rarest being Alouatta seniculus (16 groups). Smaller groups of Lagothrix lagothricha lagothricha (8-11 individuals) and A. seniculus (3-5 individuals) were observed in Tamboryacu, a majorly disturbed sampling site. Likewise, the lowest population densities estimated for L. l. lagothricha and A. seniculus corresponded to this same sampling site with 3.8 indiv. /km² and 1.6 indiv. /km², respectively, while for the remaining species there were no major differences among the sampling sites. Among the activities, hunting and logging are the predominant threats responsible for the scarce populations of A. seniculus and l. l. lagothricha, mainly in the Napo River Basin.

Detection of Plasmodium in faeces of the New World primate Alouatta clamitans

Abstract Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax have evolved with host switches between non-human primates (NHPs) and humans. Studies on the infection dynamics of Plasmodium species in NHPs will improve our understanding of the evolution of these parasites; however, such studies are hampered by the difficulty of handling animals in the field. The aim of this study was to detect genomic DNA of Plasmodium species from the faeces of New World monkeys. Faecal samples from 23 Alouatta clamitans from the Centre for Biological Research of Indaial (Santa Catarina, Brazil) were collected. Extracted DNA from faecal samples was used for molecular diagnosis of malaria by nested polymerase chain reaction. One natural infection with Plasmodium simium was identified by amplification of DNA extracted from the faeces of A. clamitans. Extracted DNA from a captive NHP was also used for parasite genotyping. The detection limit of the technique was evaluated in vitro using an artificial mixture of cultured P. falciparum in NHP faeces and determined to be 6.5 parasites/µL. Faecal samples of New World primates can be used to detect malaria infections in field surveys and also to monitor the genetic variability of parasites and dynamics of infection.

Distribución geográfica del mono aullador rojo ( Alouatta seniculus) y la fiebre amarilla en Colombia / Geographical distribution of the red howler monkey ( Alouatta seniculus ) and yellow fever in Colombia

Introducción. Colombia es un país con gran diversidad de primates no humanos, entre los cuales se destaca el mono aullador rojo ( Alouatta seniculus ) por su distribución y el papel que desempeña en la presentación de la fiebre amarilla. Objetivo. Describir la coincidencia geográfica del hábitat del mono aullador rojo y la presencia de fiebre amarilla. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio de carácter descriptivo. Los antecedentes de la fiebre amarilla en Colombia se obtuvieron de los informes y boletines del Instituto Nacional de Salud y del estudio de 2013 de Segura, et al. La presencia de A. seniculus se determinó con base en la plataforma Global Biodiversity Information Facility y el Sistema de Información sobre Biodiversidad de Colombia; los mapas se elaboraron con el programa Diva-Gis, y el modelo de nicho ecológico bajo las condiciones actuales, con el programa Maxent. Resultados. Los departamentos con mayor presencia de A. seniculus fueron Antioquia, Meta y Casanare; en 69,5 % de los departamentos con antecedentes de notificación de fiebre amarilla también había A. seniculus. El modelo de nicho ecológico evidenció que Antioquia, Bolívar, La Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Santander, Norte de Santander y Vichada tenían porciones de territorio con un índice de probabilidad cercano a 0,9 (90 %). Conclusiones. En 69,5 % de los departamentos con antecedentes de fiebre amarilla se registró la presencia de A. seniculus , lo cual resulta relevante por el papel que los primates no humanos desempeñan como reservorio natural del virus y por su contribución en la presentación de la fiebre amarilla, lo cual les confiere gran utilidad como centinelas.

Introduction: Colombia is a country with an important diversity of non-human primates, of which the red howler monkey ( Alouatta seniculus ) stands out because of its distribution and the role it plays in the occurrence of yellow fever. Objective: To describe the geographic co-occurrence of Alouatta seniculus and the reported presence of yellow fever. Materials and methods: We conducted a descriptive study. The reported presence of yellow fever in Colombia was obtained from the reports and bulletins issued by the Instituto Nacional de Salud , and the study by Segura, et al . (2013). The occurrence of A. seniculus was determined based on the data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and the Colombian Biodiversity Information System. A map of the occurrence was developed using the DIVA-GIS program, and the ecological niche model under current conditions was created with the Maxent program. Results: The departments with the highest occurrence of A. seniculus were Antioquia, Meta and Casanare; 69.5% of the departments with reported history of yellow fever had co-occurrence with A. seniculus . The ecological niche model showed that Antioquia, Bolívar, La Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Santander, Norte de Santander and Vichada had geographical portions with a probability rate nearing to 0.9 (90%). Conclusions: In 69.5% of the departments with a history of yellow fever there was co-occurrence with A. seniculus , which is relevant because non-human primates play a well-known role as natural reservoirs of the virus, and they might contribute to the occurrence of the yellow fever, which makes them very useful as sentinels.

Comparison of forest regeneration in two sites with different primate abundances in Northwestern Ecuador / Comparación de la regeneración del bosque en dos sitios con diferente abundancia de primates en el Noroccidente de Ecuador

AbstractThere is increasing evidence that large-bodied primates play important roles as seed dispersers and in the maintenance of tree diversity in forest ecosystems. In this study we compared forest regeneration at two sites with differing primate abundances in the Ecuadorian Chocoan rainforest. We predicted: (1) significant differences in primate abundance between the two sites; (2) higher understory tree species richness and density at the site with greater primate abundance; (3) the site with lower primate abundance characterized by tree species dispersed by non-primate biotic agents and/or abiotic factors. We compared two sites, Tesoro Escondido (TE) a campesino cooperative, and the El Pambilar (EP) wildlife refuge that both maintain populations of mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata), the brown-headed spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps fusciceps) and the capuchin monkey (Cebus capucinus). We characterized canopy structure by point-quadrant sampling, determined primate abundance and sampled seedlings/saplings in 1 m2 plots, classifying tree species based on three dispersal syndromes: adapted for primate dispersal, dispersed by other biological agents, and abiotic dispersal. We compared sites in terms of primate abundance (groups and individuals observed per day) and regeneration characteristics (overall density, species richness, and dispersal syndrome). We carried out within site comparisons and constructed understory tree species accumulation curves. Overall the forests were structurally similar - with significantly higher densities of A. f. fusciceps at TE. Encounter rates for the other two primate species were similar at both sites. Understory tree density and species richness was significantly higher in TE with no stabilization of tree species accumulation curves. The species accumulation curve for understory trees at EP stabilized. Higher densities and species richness of primate dispersed tree species were observed at TE, with non-primate biotically dispersed tree species the dominant dispersal syndrome at both sites. Our observations are consistent with those from other studies investigating the role of large-bodied frugivorous primates in forest regeneration, and point to a general pattern: future lowland tropical forest tree diversity depends on maintaining robust populations of large primate species in these systems. It is highly probable that the maintenance of high levels of tree diversity in Chocoan rainforests is dependent on the conservation of its largest resident primate, the critically endangered brown-headed spider monkey (A. f. fusciceps). Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (2): 493-506. Epub 2016 June 01.

ResumenHa habido un incremento de la evidencia sobre el importante papel ecológico de los primates grandes como dispersores de semillas para el mantenimiento de la diversidad del bosque. Este estudio compara la regeneración del bosque en dos sitios con diferente abundancia de primates en el Chocó ecuatoriano. Las predicciones son: (1) la abundancia de primates será significativamente diferente en los dos sitios; (2) la riqueza de especies y la densidad de plantas del sotobosque será mayor en la localidad con mayor abundancia de primates y, (3) la localidad con menos primates tendrá mayor riqueza de especies y densidad de plantas que aquellas especies dispersadas por otros mecanismos bióticos. Se compararon dos sitios: una cooperativa campesina (TE) y un Refugio de Vida Silvestre (EP). Allí habitan tres especies de primates: el aullador negro (Alouatta palliata), el mono araña de cabeza café (Ateles fusciceps fusciceps) y el mono capuchino (Cebus capucinus). Se caracterizó la estructura del dosel usando muestreos en punto-cuadrante, se determinó la abundancia de primates y se muestrearon plántulas en parcelas de 1 m2, clasificando las especies de acuerdo con tres síndromes de dispersión: dispersadas por primates, dispersadas por otros agentes bióticos y dispersadas por agentes abióticos. Se compararon ambos sitios en términos de abundancia de primates (grupos e individuos por día) y características de la regeneración (densidad de plantas, riqueza de especies, y síndrome de dispersión). Se hicieron comparaciones en cada sitio y se construyeron curvas de acumulación de especies. El bosque fue estructuralmente similar, con una abundancia mayor de A. f. fusciceps en TE. Los encuentros para las otras dos especies de primates fueron similares en ambos sitios. La densidad y riqueza de plántulas del sotobosque fue significativamente mayor en TE y la curva de acumulación de especies no se estabilizó pero sí lo hizo en EP. Se observó mayor densidad y riqueza de plántulas dispersadas por primates en TE con dominancia del grupo de plántulas expuestas a otros agentes bióticos y abióticos en ambos sitios. Los resultados son consistentes con los de otros estudios que investigan el papel de los grandes primates frugívoros en la regeneración del bosque y puntualizan un patrón general: la diversidad futura de los bosques tropicales de tierras bajas podría depender del mantenimiento de poblaciones robustas de primates grandes. Es probable que la alta diversidad de árboles en los bosques lluviosos del Chocó dependa de la conservación de sus primates, entre ellos el mono araña de cabeza café, una especie críticamente amenazada.

Population density and primate conservation in the Noroeste Biosphere Reserve, Tumbes, Peru / Densidad poblacional y conservación de los primates de la Reserva de Biosfera del Noroeste, Tumbes, Perú

The Noroeste Biosphere Reserve (NBR) is home to at least 22 species of medium and large mammals including the primates Alouatta palliata aequatorialis and Cebus albifrons aequatorialis. Previous estimates of A. p. aequatorialis population density vary from 2.3-8.6 ind/km² in 1983 to 17-19 ind/km² in 2005 and 2006, respectively. While for C. a. aequatorialis there are no estimates of population density in the NBR. In order to calculate the population density estimates for both species we installed six transects in 10.5 km² within the Cerros de Amotape National Park (belonging to the NBR) from August 2012 to March 2013. Based on 112.3 km of transects we obtained a population density of 8.3 ± 3.6 ind/km² for A. p. aequatorialis. However, for the reduced number of Cebus albifrons aequatorialis sightings we were only able to calculate a group size from three to 12 individuals and an encounter rate of 0.3 ind/km. Even though A. p. aequatorialis has potentially increased in population density, it is not feasible to make comparisons with previous estimates in the same area because of the different employed methodologies and the lack of randomness in the data collection. We recommend a long-term monitoring plan, including C. a. aequatorialis which makes it a conservation priority for the NBR, this monitoring plan should include mitigation of potential threats such as illegal hunting and trapping for the pet trade.

La Reserva de Biósfera del Noroeste (RBN) alberga por lo menos 22 especies de mamíferos medianos y grandes entre las cuales se encuentran los primates Alouatta palliata aequatorialis y Cebus albifrons aequatorialis. Los estimados previos de la densidad poblacional de A. p. aequatorialis varían de 2.3‒8.6 ind/km² en 1983 a 17‒19 ind/km² en 2005 y 2006, respectivamente. Mientras que para C. a. aequatorialis no existen estimados poblacionales para la RBN. Para calcular la densidad poblacional de estas dos especies instalamos seis transectos lineales en 10.5 km² dentro del Parque Nacional Cerros de Amotape (perteneciente a la RBN) de agosto del 2012 a marzo del 2013. En base a 112.3 km de transectos se obtuvo una densidad poblacional de 8.3 ± 3.6 ind/km² para A. p. aequatorialis; sin embargo, por el reducido número de avistamientos de Cebus albifrons aequatorialis solo se pudo calcular el tamaño de grupo que varió de tres a 12 individuos y la tasa de encuentro de 0.3 ind/km. A pesar que la población del A. p. aequatorialis aparentemente ha aumentado, no es factible hacer comparaciones con los estimados anteriores debido a las diferentes metodologías empleadas y a la falta de aleatoriedad en la toma de datos. Recomendamos un plan de monitoreo a largo plazo, que incluya a C. a. aequatorialis como objeto y prioridad de conservación para la RBN, el cual debería incluir la mitigación de posibles amenazas como caza y captura para comercio de mascotas.

Avaliação ultrassonográfica e mensurações das glândulas adrenais em primatas não humanos neotropicais: mico-de-cheiro (Saimiri sciureus), macaco-da-noite (Aotus azarae infulatus) e bugio-ruivo (Alouatta guariba clamitans) / Adrenal glands measurements and ultrasound evaluation in nonhuman primates: squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus), owl monkey (Aotus azarae infulatus) and howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans)

As glândulas adrenais possuem funções endócrinas relacionadas a múltiplas funções vitais, estando intimamente relacionadas à capacidade do animal em se adaptar ao estresse. O exame ultrassonográfico é o método diagnóstico de escolha para avaliação das glândulas em diferentes espécies. Considerando a escassa literatura, questiona-se se as doenças adrenais em primatas não humanos são incomuns ou subdiagnosticadas, havendo a hipótese desse fato ser determinado pela falta de parâmetros. Objetivou-se descrever as características ultrassonográficas das glândulas adrenais para três espécies de primatas não humanos mantidas em cativeiro: Saimiri sciureus (mico-de-cheiro), Aotus azarae infulatus (macaco-da-noite) e Alouatta guariba clamitans (bugio-ruivo). Conclui-se que é possível a identificação das glândulas adrenais por meio de exame ultrassonográfico, sendo que os padrões de referência foram estabelecidos com sucesso para as espécies em questão. Ressalta-se que a adequação de animais em ambientes estressantes é frequentemente acompanhada por uma hipertrofia das glândulas adrenais, portanto deve-se levar em consideração que as mensurações realizadas nesse estudo foram estabelecidas em animais de cativeiro...

The adrenal glands have endocrine functions related to multiple vital functions and are closely related to the animal's ability to adapt to stress. The ultrasound is the diagnostic method of choice for evaluation of glands in different species. Considering the scarce literature, one may question whether the adrenal disorders in nonhuman primates are uncommon or underdiagnosed, and a hypothesis exists that this fact is determined by the lack of parameters. The goal is to describe the sonographic features of the adrenal glands for three species of nonhuman primates kept in captivity: squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus), owl monkey (Aotus azarae infulatus) and howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans). It is concluded that it is possible to identify the adrenal glands by ultrasound, and the reference standards have been established successfully for the species in question. It is noteworthy that the adaptation of animals in many stressful environments is often accompanied by a hypertrophy of the adrenal glands, so one should take into account that the measurements performed in this study were established in captive animals...

High consumption of primates by pumas and ocelots in a remnant of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest / Alto consumo de primatas por onças-pardas e jaguatiricas em um fragmento na Mata Atlântica no Brasil

We studied the diet of the ocelot and puma during the years 2007 and 2008 at the Feliciano Miguel Abdala Reserve, in Minas Gerais, south-eastern Brazil. We collected 49 faecal samples (scats) from cats, and identified the species of cat from 23 of them by the analysis of the microstructure patterns of hairs found in their faeces: 17 scats of the puma (Puma concolor) and six of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis). In the puma scats, we identified three species of primates (Brachyteles hypoxanthus, Alouatta guariba and Sapajus nigritus), the remains of which were found in eight of 17 collected (47.1%), representing 26.7% of items consumed. For the ocelot, we detected capuchin monkey (S. nigritus) remains in three of the six scats (50%), accounting for 18.7% of items consumed by ocelot. We were unable to identify the cat species in the remaining 26 faecal samples, but we were able to analyse the food items present. Primates were found in five of these 26 faeces (19.2%) and represented 10.2% of the items found. Although the sample size is limited, our results indicate a relatively high consumption of primates by felines. We believe that this high predation may be the result of the high local density of primates as well as the greater exposure to the risks of predation in fragmented landscapes, which tends to increase the incidence of the primates using the ground.

Nós estudamos a dieta de jaguatiricas e onças-pardas entre os anos de 2007 e 2008 na Reserva Feliciano Miguel Abdala, em Minas Gerais, sudeste do Brasil. Nós coletamos 49 amostras fecais de felinos, em 23 das quais foi possível a identificação do predador através da análise do padrão microestrutural dos seus pelos encontrados nas fezes, sendo 17 fezes de onça-parda (Puma concolor) e seis de jaguatirica (Leopardus pardalis). Nas amostras de onça-parda nós identificamos três espécies de primatas (Brachyteles hypoxanthus, Alouatta guariba e Sapajus nigritus), cujas partes não digeridas foram encontradas em oito das 17 fezes coletadas, representando 26,7% dos itens consumidos por onças-pardas. Para jaguatirica, nós detectamos macacos-prego (S. nigritus) em três de seis fezes, o que correspondeu a 18,7% dos itens consumidos. Para as 26 amostras fecais restantes, cuja identificação do predador não foi possível, nós analisamos os itens alimentares presentes. Restos de primatas foram identificados em cinco dessas fezes (19,3%), representando 10,2% dos itens encontrados. Apesar do tamanho da amostra ser limitado, nossos resultados indicam uma taxa relativamente alta de consumo de primatas por felinos. Nós acreditamos que essa alta taxa de predação pode ser resultado da grande densidade local de primatas, bem como do aumento do risco de predação em paisagens fragmentadas, o que tende a aumentar a incidência do uso do chão por parte dos primatas.

Ultraestrutura comparativa da língua do sagui-de-tufo-preto (Callithrix penicillata) e do bugio-preto (Alouatta caraya) em diferentes faixas etárias / Comparative ultrastructure of the tongue of black-tufted-ear-marmoset (Callithrix penicillata) and black-howler-monkey (Alouatta caraya) in different age groups

Para a análise e descrição comparativa da morfologia da língua e de suas papilas, bem como a distribuição destas, foram utilizados três animais de faixas etárias distintas (filhote, jovem, adulto), de duas espécies de primatas, Callithrix penicillata (sagui-de-tufo-preto) e Alouatta caraya (bugio-preto), ambas sendo observadas através da microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Os animais da espécie Callithrix penicillata eram procedentes de um criadouro comercial de animais selvagens em Atibaia/SP e vieram a óbito por causas naturais, e os da espécie Alouatta caraya eram provenientes do acervo do Laboratório de Anatomia Macroscópica da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia da Universidade de São Paulo (FMVZ-USP). Com o material analisado e a técnica empregada pôde-se constatar que as línguas dos saguis-de-tufo-preto e dos bugios-pretos analisadas apresentavam papilas linguais similares às descritas para outras espécies de primatas. As línguas possuíam diferenças morfológicas, principalmente para alguns tipos de papilas linguais, em detrimento do avançar da idade dos animais. De forma geral, foram observados quatro tipos de papilas linguais, sendo estas: filiforme, fungiforme, valada e folhada. As línguas dos bugio-pretos apresentavam características de animais com dietas herbívoras. Possuindo desta forma papilas filiformes com formatos variados (coroa, lança, multifilamentar), de acordo com as regiões da língua, e também robustas papilas, principalmente na proeminência lingual. Já as línguas dos saguis-de-tufo-preto possuíam características de animais onívoros. Com papilas filiformes em formato de coroa, grandes quantidades de papilas fungiformes e desenvolvidas papilas folhadas. Observou-se que as modificações das papilas linguais que ocorrem nos animais após o nascimento apresentaram correlação com a mudança nos tipos de alimentos consumidos. Sendo presumível então concluir que as dietas possuem relação direta para com as alterações morfológicas e estruturais das papilas linguais nos animais ora aqui analisados.

For the comparative analysis and description of the morphology of the tongue and taste buds as well as the distribution of these we have used three animals of different age groups (puppy, young adult), of two species of primate, Callithrix penicillata (black-tufted-ear-marmoset) and Alouatta caraya (black-howler-monkey), both being observed by scanning electron microscopy. The animals of the species Callithrix penicillata were from a commercial breeding of wild animals in Atibaia-SP and they had died of natural causes, and the specie Alouatta caraya were from the collection of Macroscopic Anatomy Laboratory of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science University of São Paulo (FMVZ-USP). With the material analyzed and the technique employed could be seen that the tongue of black-tufted-ear-marmosets and black-howler-monkeys had examined lingual papillae similar to those described for other primate species. The tongue has morphological differences, especially for some types of lingual papillae, at the expense of advancing age of the animals. Overall, we found four types of lingual papillae, which are: filiform, fungiform, vallate and litter. The tongues of the black-howler-monkey had characteristics of animals with herbivorous diets. Possessing this way with the filiform papillae varied formats (crown, spear, multifilament), according to the regions of the tongue, and also robust taste, especially in the lingual prominence. Since the tongues of the black-tufted-ear-marmosets owned features of omnivorous animals. With filiform-shaped crown, large amounts of fungiform papillae and foliate papillae developed. It was observed that the changes of tongue papillae that occur in animals after birth correlated with the change in the types of foods consumed. Being suspected then conclude that diets have direct relation to the morphological and structural of the lingual papillae now here in the animals analyzed.

Análise do líquido cefalorraquidiano de bugio-ruivo (Alouatta guariba) / Cerebrospinal fluid analysis of the howler monkey (Alouatta guariba)

A presente pesquisa foi realizada com o objetivo de desenvolver e adaptar técnicas diagnósticas em neurologia para primatas não humanos, da espécie Alouatta guariba Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 (bugio-ruivo) saudáveis e mantidos em cativeiro. Foram realizadas análises físico-químicas e citológicas do líquido cefalorraquidiano obtido na cisterna magna de oito bugios-ruivos. Para realização dos exames, todos os animais foram contidos quimicamente com associação de cetamina, xilazina e midazolam e anestesia inalatória com isoflurano. Os resultados das análises do líquido cefalorraquidiano demonstraram valores médios de proteína: 16,92mg/dL±9,84; glicose: 131,25mg/dL±106,7; pH: 8,37±0,69; células nucleadas: 0,5/mm³±0,75; hemácias: 49,37/mm³±111,76 e pressão: 7,37cm H2O±1,77. O trabalho demonstrou a segurança e a eficácia da colheita do líquido cefalorraquidiano na cisterna magna de Alouatta guariba e os valores de referência para a espécie.

This survey was conducted with the objective of developing and adapting diagnostic techniques in neurology for non-human primates, of the species Alouatta guariba Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 (howler monkey) healthy and kept in captivity. Physical-chemical analyses were carried out in cerebrospinal fluid and its pressure measurement in the cisterna magna. Eight animals were used for the analysis of cerebrospinal fluid. In all procedures, were used chemical restraint and anesthesia with ketamine, xylazine and association of midazolam and inhalational anesthesia with isoflurane for carrying out the spinal tap. The cerebrospinal fluid analysis showed average values: protein: 16.92±9.84; glucose: 131.25mg/dL±106.7; pH: 8.37±0.69; nucleated cells: 0.5/mm³±0.75; red blood cells: 49.37/mm³±111.76 and CSF cisternal pressure: 7.37cm H2O±1.77. This study demonstrated the safety and efficacy of cerebrospinal fluid collection in the cisterna magna of Alouatta guariba, and the reference values for the specie.

Extra group copulation in alouatta caraya (primates, atelidae) living on an island of urban forest from southeast São Paulo, Brazil

Extra group copulations are rarely observed among the Alouatta genus, which lives in a fragmented area in Brazil. Here, we describe the second extra group copulation in A. caraya in literature, which was the first from Brazil. This happened in the southeast urban island forest, which measures 25 ha. In this forest there are two troops: one of them with thirteen howlers and the other with four. These howlers may be extinct in a few years since in the region there is only 3.89 % of native forests and high anthropic action due to agribusiness. We discuss the possible issues that led to the extra group copulation.

Cópulas extra grupo raramente são observados em animais do gênero Alouatta, que vivem em áreas fragmentadas do Brasil. Aqui, descrevemos a segunda cópula extra grupo em A. caraya na literatura, que foi a primeira do Brasil. Isso aconteceu na floresta ilha urbana sudeste, que mede 25 ha. Nesta floresta existem dois bandos: um deles com treze bugios e o outro com quatro. Estes bugios podem ser extintos em poucos anos, uma vez que na região há apenas 3,89% de florestas nativas e alta ação antrópica, devido ao agronegócio. Nós discutimos os possíveis aspectos que levaram à cópula extra grupo.

Viabilidad poblacional de Alouatta palliata (Primates: Atelidae) y Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí, Heredia, Costa Rica / Population viability of Alouatta palliata (Primates: Atelidae) and Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae) at Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí, Heredia, Costa Rica

Population viability of Alouatta palliata (Primates: Atelidae) and Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae) at Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí, Heredia, Costa Rica. Habitat destruction may cause wildlife population fragmentation and is considered an important factor in small population species extinction. As wildlife populations become smaller, threats to their stability and persistence arise as a result of demographic, environmental and genetic stochastic factors. The aim of this work was to study the effects of population fragmentation on the long term viability of Alouatta palliata and Cebus capucinus populations, at Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí (RVSPN), Heredia. For this we used the computer software VORTEX to run a population viability analysis (PVA) for both species. The input data of the PVA were taken from the demography structure of the RVSPN, literature sources from the species and from PVA related papers. We evaluated two sets of scenarios: small fragmented populations to reflect the population current state, and one larger and continuous population, to reflect the effect of reforestation actions followed by RVSPN to connect forest fragments. Results suggest that both A. palliata and C. capucinus can survive in isolated forest fragments. However, if different factors as inbreeding depression, catastrophes or habitat loss were incorporated to the scenarios, the small fragmented populations become unstable and the risk of extinction increased for both species. Continuous and larger populations were more robust against the threats incorporated in the scenarios when compared to the current situation of smaller and fragmented populations. The best management option for both species would be to continue reforestation efforts in the area to connect forest fragments, with the result of larger and continuous populations of both species. It is important to continue the observation of both species populations, and to promote a habitat management to reduce the negative effects of stochastic environmental events. Rev. Biol. Trop. 60 (2): 809-832. Epub 2012 June 01.

La destrucción del hábitat conlleva a la fragmentación de poblaciones de especies silvestres y se considera como uno de los principales factores en la extinción de especies A medida que las poblaciones se vuelven más pequeñas, surgen amenazas hacia su estabilidad y persistencia, como resultado de factores estocásticos demográficos, ambientales y genéticos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue estudiar los efectos de la fragmentación de poblaciones en la viabilidad de Alouatta palliata y Cebus capucinus en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal (RVSPN), Sarapiquí, Heredia. Para esto se uso el programa VORTEX para correr un análisis de viabilidad de poblaciones (PVA) para ambas especies. La información utilizada en el PVA proviene de la estructura demográafica de las poblaciones del RVSPN, literatura sobre la historia natural de las especies y artículos relacionados con PVA. Los resultados sugieren que tanto A. palliata como C. capucinus pueden sobrevivir en fragmentos boscosos aislados. Sin embargo, si se incorporan factores como depresión por endogamia, catástrofes o perdida de hábitat, las pequeñas poblaciones fragmentadas se vuelven inestables y aumenta el riesgo de que desaparezcan. Las poblaciones continuas fueron más robustas ante las amenazas incorporadas, por lo que se recomienda continuar con la reforestación para unir los fragmentos boscosos. Es importante darle seguimiento a las poblaciones de ambas especies y tener un manejo de su hábitat para disminuir los efectos negativos de diferentes eventos estocásticos provocados por el ambiente.

Ocorrência de Amblyomma aureolatum (Pallas, 1772) e A. ovale (Kock, 1844) (Acari: Ixodidae) parasitando Alouatta clamitans Cabrera, 1940 (Primates: Atelidae) na região norte do estado de Santa Catarina / Ocurrence of Amblyomma aureolatum (Pallas, 1772) and A. ovale (Kock, 1844) (Acari: Ixodidae) parasitizing Alouatta clamitans Cabrera, 1940 (Primates: Atelidae) in the north of Santa Catarina state, Brazil

The authors confirm the presence of one female and two males of Amblyomma aureolatum and five females and one male of A. ovale parasitizing southern brown howler monkeys in the municipalities of Indaial, Blumenau, Garuva, and Jaraguá do Sul, Santa Catarina State, Brazil.

Anotaciones de la ecología alimentaria de monos aulladores negros en un fragmento con condiciones de hacinamiento (Balancán, Tabasco, México) / Anotações sobre a ecologia alimentar de bugios num fragmento superlotado (Balancán, Tabasco, México) / Annotations on the feeding ecology of black howler monkeys in an overcrowded fragment in Balancán, Tabasco, México

Se describió el comportamiento de alimentación del mono aullador negro centroamericano (Alouatta pigra) en un fragmento de menos de una hectárea de selva húmeda perennifolia rodeada de pastizales de uso ganadero, árboles dispersos y huertos de mango en la región de Balancán (Tabasco, México). Objetivo: reportar la dieta y actividad del mono aullador negro en condiciones de hacinamiento durante el mes más lluvioso en Balancán, Tabasco, México. Materiales y métodos: las observaciones conductuales (81 h) se hicieron mediante la metodología animal focal de una tropa de A. pigra constituida por tres individuos (un macho adulto, un hembra adulta y un infante). Resultados: del tiempo total de observación, la alimentación representó el 15,97%, el descanso el 78% y la locomoción el 4,57%. En el área de estudio se registraron 14 especies de plantas, de las cuales 10 fueron consumidas por los monos aulladores. El 55% del tiempo de alimentación fue invertido al consumo de frutos, 27% a las hojas, 17% al tallo y 1% a los retoños. La especie de árbol más consumida fue Spondias mombin, con el 61% del tiempo invertido. Conclusión: al igual que otros estudios, se confirmó la tendencia alimentaria folívoro-frugívora del género Alouatta. Se provee información sobre la flexibilidad que tienen los monos aulladores negros para vivir y mantenerse en condiciones de extrema perturbación donde su hábitat es de 0,1 hectáreas con pocas especies de árboles para utilizar, lo que además obliga a los individuos a hacer uso del suelo para trasladarse. Palabras clave: Alouatta pigra, Dieta, Patrón de actividad, Frugivoría, Hábitat fragmentado...

Annotations on the feeding ecology of black howler monkeys in an overcrowded fragment in Balancán, Tabasco, México. We described the feeding behavior of Central-American black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) in a fragment of less than one hectare of humid evergreen forest surrounded by grassland for livestock use, isolated trees and mango orchards, in the region of Balancán (Tabasco, México). Objective: To record the diet and activity of black howler monkeys in crowded conditions during the wettest month in Balancán (Tabasco, México). Methods and methods: The behavioral observations (81 h) were made using the focal animal methodology with an A. pigra troop made up of three individuals (1 adult male, 1 adult female and 1 infant). Results: Feeding time represented 15.97%, rest 78% and locomotion 4.57% of total time. In the study area we recorded 14 plant species, with 10 being consumed by howler monkeys. 55% of feeding time was devoted to the consumption of fruits, 27% to leaves, 17% to stems, and 1% to sprouts. Spondias mombin was the tree species most consumed, with 61% of the time invested on it. Conclusion: Like other studies, we confirmed the frugivore-folivore feeding tendency of the genus Alouatta. We provide information on the black howler monkey flexibility to live and maintain themselves in extreme perturbation conditions, where their habitat is 0.1 ha with few tree species to use, forcing individuals to move around the ground...

Anotações sobre a ecologia alimentar de bugios num fragmento superlotado (Balancán, Tabasco, México). Descreve-se o comportamento alimentar do bugio centro-americano (Alouatta pigra) num fragmento menor que 1 ha de floresta úmida perenifólia rodeada por pastos para uso do gado, árvores dispersas e pomares de manga na região de Balacán (Tabasco, México). Objetivo: Registrar a dieta e atividade do bugio em condições de superlotação durante o mês mais chuvoso em Balacán, Tabasco, México. Materiais e métodos: As observações de comportamento (81 h) se fizeram por abordagem animal focal de um grupo de A. pigra constituído por três indivíduos (um macho adulto, uma fêmea adulta e um infante). Resultados: Do tempo total de observação, a alimentação representou 15,97%, o descanso 78% e a locomoção 4,57%. Na área de estudo se registraram 14 espécies de plantas das quais 10 foram consumidas pelos bugios. O 55% do tempo de alimentação foi gasto para o consumo de frutas, 27% às folhas, 17% ao caule e 1% aos brotos. A espécie de árvores mais consumida foi Spondias mombin, com 61% do tempo investido. Conclusão: Assim como outros estudos confirma-se a tendência alimentaria folívora-frugívora do gênero Alouatta. Fornece-se informação sobre a flexibilidade que têm os bugios para viver e ficar em condições de extrema perturbação, onde seu habitat é de 0,1 ha com poucas espécies de árvores para seu uso. Forçando, além disso, aos indivíduos a usar o terreno para se deslocar...