Morphometric assessment methods for estimation of sexual dimorphism from cranial occipital condyles / Métodos de evaluación morfométrica para la estimación del dimorfismo sexual de los cóndilos occipitales craneales

SUMMARY: Identification of fragmentary human remains is an integral par of medico legal investigations. Occipital region is commonly not affected in traumatic injuries and accidents due to its secluded position which makes it the integral part in determination of sex in the absence of entire skeleton. Occipital condylar region is also the most common area for degenerative and neoplastic diseases. So thorough knowledge of anatomy of occipital condyle is very essential during surgical interventions. 86 skulls were studied from osteological collections of Department of Anatomy, Yenepoya Medical College. Maximum length and breadth of the occipital condyle, anterior intercondylar distance and posterior intercondylar distance was measured with the help of vernier callipers. Descriptive statistics was calculated for the parameters considered. Metric data of right and left sides were compared with student t test and p value was calculated.All data obtained was subjected for discriminant function analysis to derive the statistical model. All the measurements were significantly high in males compared to females. Condylar length and width, anterior and posterior intercondylar distance can be used to derive formula for determination of sex in south Indian population with an accuracy of 66.3 %.

RESUMEN: La identificación de restos humanos fragmentarios es una parte integral de las investigaciones médico legales. La región occipital comúnmente no se ve afectada en lesiones traumáticas y accidentes debido a su posición apartada que la convierte en parte integral en la determinación del sexo en ausencia de un esqueleto completo. La región condilar occipital es también el área más común de enfermedades degenerativas y neoplásicas. Por lo tanto, el conocimiento integral de la anatomía del cóndilo occipital es esencial durante las intervenciones quirúrgicas. Se estudiaron 86 cráneos de colecciones osteológicas del Departamento de Anatomía, Facultad de Medicina de Yenepoya. Se midió el largo y ancho máximo del cóndilo occipital, la distancia intercondilar anterior y la distancia intercondilar posterior con la ayuda de un calibrador vernier. Se calculó la estadística descriptiva para los parámetros considerados. Los datos métricos de los lados derecho e izquierdo se compararon con la prueba t de Student y se calculó el valor de p. Todos los datos obtenidos se sometieron a análisis de función discriminante para derivar el modelo estadístico. Todas las medidas fueron significativamente altas en los hombres en comparación con las mujeres. La longitud y el ancho del cóndilo, la distancia intercondilar anterior y posterior se pueden utilizar para derivar la fórmula para determinar el sexo en la población del sur de la India con una precisión del 66,3 %.

Sex estimation using ulna in a Thai population / Estimación del sexo utilizando la ulna en una población tailandesa

SUMMARY: Sex estimation from fragmentary bone remain is still challenge for forensic pathologist. Ulna has been reported useful for sex estimation by metric analysis. This study generated sex estimation function for fragment and complete of ulnar bone in a Thai population. The function was generated from 200 pairs of ulnar bone, and others 20 pair of ulnar bone were used for test the accuracy of the functions. Olecranon width was the best single variable for sex predicting of proximal part of ulna, which right olecranon width could be classified the sex 90.5 %. While distal end width of ulna was the variable for predicting the sex of distal part, which left distal end width could be classified the sex with 83.0 %. Stepwise discriminant function analysis was applied to proximal part. For proximal part of right ulna 4 measurements were selected (inferior-medial trochlear notch length, olecranon width, olecranon-coronoid process length, and maximum proximal ulnar width), while the left side, superior trochlear notch width, olecranon width, and maximum proximal ulnar width were chosen, and their functions could be predicted the sex with 91.0 % and 90.0 %, respectively. Our results indicated the ulnar bone had high ability for estimating the sex in a Thai population.

RESUMEN: La estimación del sexo a partir de restos óseos fragmentarios sigue siendo un desafío para el patólogo forense. Se ha informado de la utilidad de la ulna para la estimación del sexo mediante análisis métrico. En este estudio se analizó la estimación del sexo para un fragmento y de la ulna completa en una población tailandesa. La función se generó a partir de 200 pares de ulnas y se utilizaron otras 20 pares de ulnas estimando la precisión de las funciones. El ancho del olécranon fue la mejor variable individual para predecir el sexo en la parte proximal de la ulna (90, 5 %). Si bien el ancho del extremo distal de la ulna fue la variable para predecir el sexo, el ancho del extremo distal izquierdo podría clasificarse por sexo con un 83,0 % de certeza. Se aplicó un análisis de función discriminante escalonada a la parte proximal. Para la parte proximal de la ulna derecha se seleccionaron 4 medidas (longitud de la incisura troclear inferior-medial, ancho del olécranon, longitud del proceso olecraneano-proceso coronoides y ancho ulnar proximal máximo), mientras que en el lado izquierdo, fue determinado el ancho de la incisura superior troclear, ancho del olécranon y ancho ulnar proximal máximo. Se eligió el ancho, y se pudo predecir el sexo en el 91,0 % y 90,0 % de los casos, respectivamente. Nuestros resultados indicaron que la ulna tenía una alta capacidad para estimar el sexo en una población tailandesa.

The Ganges basin fish Cirrhinus mrigala (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae): detection of wild populations stock structure with landmark morphometry

Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton, 1822) is an Indian major carp originally inhabitant of the Ganga river system in Northern India. No information is available on morphometric variation in natural populations of C. mrigala from Ganga river basin. Therefore, to promote management optimization, this study was undertaken to evaluate the population structure on landmark-based morphometric variations of this commercially important species in Ganges. A total of 381 fish samples of C. mrigala were collected from 10 locations of 10 rivers belonging to Ganges basin. A 12-landmark truss network system was used to generate 66 morphometric variables were transformed (standard length was excluded from the final analysis retaining 65 variables). Transformed measurements were employed to univariate analysis of variance, principal component analysis (PCA) and discriminant function analysis (DFA). Univariate analysis of variance showed significant differences in all the 65 transformed morphometric characters studied. Eight principal components were extracted from 65 significant characters accounting for 94.1 % of the variation. Forward stepwise discriminant function analysis of the 65 significant variables produced eight discriminating variables. DFA extracted eight discriminating functions contributed overall to the variance. The first discriminant function (DF) accounted for 37.9 % while second DF accounted for 23.5% of the among-group variability. In DFA, 45.7 % original while 39.1 % of cross-validated grouped cases were correctly classified in the overall assignment of individuals, indicating low distinction among the stocks of all the species i.e. low isolation of the stocks for the morphometric measurements. Common ancestry in the prehistoric period and migration of individuals between the rivers could be the possible reason for the observed low level of morphometric differentiation among wild mrigal populations. In future, the application of molecular genetic markers along with morphometric studies would be an effective method to examine the genetic component of phenotypic relatedness between geographic regions and to facilitate the development of management recommendations.

Cirrhinus mrigala es una carpa originaria del sistema fluvial del río Ganges al norte de India, de cual no hay información sobre la variación morfométrica de sus poblaciones naturales en esta cuenca. Por lo tanto, para promover la optimización de su manejo, se evaluó la estructura poblacional usando morfometría basada en puntos de referencia de C. mrigala. En total se midieron 381 individuos de C. mrigala, recolectados en 10 puntos de 10 ríos de la cuenca del Ganges. Se utilizaron 12-puntos de referencia de sistema de redes truss para generar 66 variables morfométricas, de donde se excluyó la longitud estándar y se utilizaron 65 variables. Las medidas transformadas se utilizaron para un análisis de varianza univariado, análisis de componentes principales y análisis de función discriminante. El análisis de varianza mostró diferencias en todos los 65 caracteres morfométricos estudiados. Se extrajeron ocho componentes principales de los 65 caracteres, que suman el 94.1 % de la variación. El análisis de función discriminante de las 65 variables produjo ocho variables discriminantes que contribuyeron en la varianza a nivel general. La primera función discriminante representó 37.9 %, mientras que la segunda 23.5 % de la variación entre grupos. En el análisis de función discriminante, 39.1 % de lo agrupado por validación cruzada fue correctamente clasificado en la asignación general de individuos, lo que indica baja diferenciación entre las poblaciones, lo que puede ser un bajo aislamiento de las poblaciones para las medidas morfométricas. Otra posible razón para la baja diferenciación morfométrica es la existencia de un ancestro común en el periodo prehistórico y la migración de individuos entre ríos. En el futuro, la aplicación de marcadores genéticos moleculares junto con estudios morfométricos será un método efectivo para examinar el componente genético de la relación fenotípica entre áreas geográficas y facilitar el desarrollo de recomendaciones de manejo.

The Clavicle As A Forensic Tool: Sex-discriminatory Characteristics In Cadaveric Samples Of Nigeria Origin

One of the simplest values that can be determined from the skeleton is sex; the accuracy is greater if essentialparts are intact. Discriminant functional analysis is the most popular statistical method implored in sexdetermination and this has encouraged the accurate assessment of anthropometric data. This study was carriedout to evaluate the sex-discriminatory characteristics of the clavicle of Nigerian origin. 45 clavicles (comprisingof 25 males and 20 females) of both sides were macerated from dissected cadavers from the Anatomy Departmentsof the University of Port Harcourt Rivers State, Igbinedion University Okada, Ambrose Ali University Ekpoma bothin Edo State and Nnamdi Azikiwe University Enugu State. Clavicles with signs of deformity and/or fracture wereexcluded. Parameters obtained from the clavicle included; length, weight mid-shaft circumference, robustnessindex, angles, and volume. The measurements obtained were subjected to SPSS (IBM version 23.0, Armonk, USA)paired sample t-test and Pearson’s correlation analysis to evaluate side difference and level of correlatesrespectively while Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) was used to evaluate the accuracy of the parameters inestimating sex. Confidence level was set at 95%, and P-value <0.05 was taken to be significant. The result showedhigh sex differences in the measurement (P<0.01) as well as sex-differentiated correlation in the left and rightclavicular measurement (r2; 79 – 98%; P<0.01), The parameters of the right and left clavicle were highly significantwith positive correlation at varying degree for total population studied. The extent of correlation (80-99%)between the L & R clavicular measurements informed the need for side-specific DFA. The R & L clavicles producedcentroid values of 1.522 and 1.290 for males and –2.537 and -2.150 for females respectively. The accuracy inpredicting group membership using the right clavicular parameters was 91.5% while the left was 87.0%, with abetter prediction for females. The estimation of sex from the clavicle of Nigerian origin is at least 87% possibleusing the studied clavicular characteristics.

Phenotypic differentiation of Barilius bendelisis (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) in four rivers from Central Indian Himalaya / Diferenciación fenotípica de Barilius bendelisis (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) en cuatro ríos del Himalaya central de la India

Barilius bendelisis, commonly known as Indian Hill Trout is an upland water fish of South East Asia. It belongs to the family Cyprinidae and dwells in shallow, clear and cold water. In this study, the intraspecific variation of Barilius bendelisis, on the basis of morphometric characters, was investigated. Altogether, 402 specimens were collected from four rivers in the Central Indian Himalaya. A truss network was constructed by interconnecting 12 landmarks to yield 30 distance variables that were extracted from digital images of specimens using tpsDig2 and PAST software. Allometric transformed truss measurements were subjected to univariate analysis of variance, factor analysis and discriminant analysis. All variables exhibited significant differences between the populations. Altogether 88% of the specimens were classified into their original populations (81.98% under a ‘leave-one-out’ procedure). With factor analysis measurements of the head region, the middle portion and the caudal region had high loadings on the first and second axis. The results indicated that B. bendelisis has significant phenotypic heterogeneity between the geographically isolated regions of Central Indian Himalaya. We hypothesize that the marked interspecific variation in B. bendelisis is the result of local ecological conditions.

Barilius bendelisis, comúnmente conocido como trucha “Indian Hill”, es un pez de tierras altas del sudeste de Asia. Pertenece a la familia de los ciprínidos y habita en aguas poco profundas, claras y frías. En este estudio se investigó la variación intraespecífica de Barilius bendelisis basado en caracteres morfométricos. En total se obtuvieron 402 muestras de cuatro ríos en el centro del Himalaya hindú. Se construyó una red “truss” mediante la interconexión de 12 puntos de referencia para producir 30 variables de distancia que fueron extraídas de las imágenes digitales de las muestras, utilizando el software tpsDig2 y PAST. Las mediciones alométricas de la red truss se transformaron mediante un análisis univariado de varianza, análisis factorial y discriminante. Todas las variables mostraron diferencias significativas entre las poblaciones. En total, el 88% de los especímenes se clasificaron en sus poblaciones originales (81.98% con el procedimiento “leave-one-out”). Las mediciones del análisis factorial de la región de la cabeza, la parte media y la región caudal mostraron altas concentraciones en el primer y segundo eje. Los resultados indicaron que B. bendelisis tiene heterogeneidad fenotípica significativa entre las regiones geográficamente aisladas del centro del Himalaya hindú. Nuestra hipótesis es que hay una marcada variación interespecífica de B. bendelisis como resultado de las condiciones ecológicas locales.

Sex Determination Using Three-dimensional Image of Skull in Korean: Metric Study by Discriminant Function Analysis / 체질인류학회지

Sex determination is considered the first and most important process in the identification of unknown skeletal remains. The skull is one of bones with high accuracy to discriminate sexes, but there is no dimorphic studies of Korean skull by discriminant function analysis. The aim of this study was to build and provide an easy and accurate discriminant equation to sex determination by using three-dimensional skull images of Korean. Computed tomography images from 102 cadavers were reconstructed three-dimensional images by computer program. We measured 44 variables using the template in computer program and variables were sorted out items with high accuracy and reliability by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), Cohen's d value, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The equation with the highest accuracy had 82.7% in males, 82.2% in females, it was constituted bizygomatic diameter, cranial base length, biauricular breadth, upper facial breadth, frontal chord, foramen magnum breadth, and right mastoid length. The cross-validated accuracy had 76.5%~86.7% using 3D skull images in Koreans. The value of variables that matches the other population group study, most of variables had a statistically significant difference among population groups. Male skulls in Koreans were smaller than those in European and female skulls were bigger than in Asian. This result should be helpful to determine sex in Koreans.

Prevalence and early signs of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among 18-36 month-old children of Tianjin in China / 生物医学与环境科学（英文）

<p><b>OBJECTIVE</b>The aim of this study is to estimate the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among 18-36 month old children in the Tianjin Municipality of China, and to identify early signs of autistic children and the predictability of each individual symptom.</p><p><b>METHODS</b>A total of 8 000 children were screened to do a questionnaire based on CHAT modified to include more early signs of autism at the age of 18-36 months. Then the at-risk children were reexamined 1.5 years later and ASD children were identified based on DSM-IV. Early signs of autism were analyzed retrospectively by using discriminant function analysis performed among ASD children, children not followed up and children followed up but failing to meet ASD criteria.</p><p><b>RESULTS</b>Three hundred and sixty seven children were screened as being at-risk to ASD, and 22 of them were identified as having ASD in the subsequent diagnosis. The prevalence of ASD was 27.5 per 10 000 in Tianjin of China with a male to female ratio of 4:1. Items addressing social interactions and communications had higher predictability than other items to distinguish autistic children from non-autistic ones. Pretend play, functional play, showing and reading parents' facial expressions distinguished autistic children from those not followed up, nevertheless those followed up but failing to meet ASD criteria were not included.</p><p><b>CONCLUSION</b>The prevalence of ASD found in our study was lower than that reported in some studies by western researchers. Autism has its specific symptoms, such as deficits in social awareness, social relatedness, and social referencing.</p>

Metric assessment of femur using discriminant function analysis in South Indian population.

Introduction: Sex determination from unidentified human skeletal elements is a challenge for forensic investigators and anthropologists. This study aims to detect the best variable for sex determination from different parameters of femur. Materials and Methods: Study was conducted with 75 (40 males and 35 females) femora of known sex from the Department of Anatomy. Eight parameters were measured and subjected to univariate statistics, multivariate analysis such as discriminant analysis and logistic regression analysis employing SPSS 13.00 version program. Results: The epicondylar breadth, antero-posterior diameter of lateral condyle, proximal breadth, vertical diameter of head and neck are statistically significant for dimorphism (p<0.05). Discriminant analysis shows an overall accuracy of 62.7% and stepwise discriminant analysis shows an accuracy of 65.3%.Under stepwise analysis epicondylar breadth was selected as the best discriminant variable for sex prediction. Discussion: Results implies that epicondylar breadth of femur is the best parameter for sex determination which agrees with available literature in different population. It can be correlated to delayed ossification of growing lower end in males giving higher value. Due to early maturity dimorphism is less in the upper end of the bone. Conclusion: The results of present study confirm that epicondylar breadth is one of the good parameters in femur for sexing in unidentified skeleton.

Determination of sex from fragment of hip bone in Indian Bengali.

The present study was designed to derive a model for determination of sex from fragment of adult hip bone (distal ischio-pubic portion) in a population specific sample using Discriminant function analysis. The following discriminant function was obtained: DF = .76*SYL +1.60*SYW + 4.36. *DOF – 24.88 Overall 90.0 % of the cases could be correctly classified in to the two sexes from the three predictors [maximum vertical length of symphyseal surface (SYL), maximum width of symphyseal surface of pubis (SYW) and maximum diameter of the obturator foramen (DOF).] in the model. Cross-validated results showed correct classification in 86.7% cases. The results of this preliminary study show that these three variables contribute to discrimination between the two sexes in the study population. This investigation also reiterates that discriminant functions are population specific. Sexing of the adult human hipbone is thus possible with reasonable accuracy using the discriminant function on a sample obtained from the Indian Bengali population. This metric analysis can be used for fragmentary remains of hipbones of the population under study.

Determination of sex from adult sternum by discriminant function analysis on autopsy sample of indian bengali population: A new approach.

Sex determination from skeletal remains is well studied and extensively documented subject. The sternum has drawn considerable attention in Forensic and anthropological studies. Morphological variants of sternum are well documented The present study was designed to examine the sexual dimorphism of adult sternum in a population specific autopsy sample using discriminant function analysis on 70 adult bones (35 male and 35 female). It was observed that the sternum exhibited sexual dimorphism in the study population (Indian Bengali). The following discriminant function was obtained: DF = .86*Ws +1.04 * WM4 +. 77 *PCL 25.03. Overall 100 % of the cases could be correctly classified in to the two sexes from the three predictors [width of supra sternal notch (Ws), Width of sternum at level of 4th rib (WM4) and posterior curved length of sternum (PCL)] in the model. Cross-validated results showed correct classification in 100% cases. The results of this preliminary study show that sternum exhibit considerable sexual dimorphism and these variables contribute to discrimination between the two sexes in the study population. This investigation also reiterates that discriminant functions are population specific. Sexing of adult human sternum is thus possible with reasonable accuracy using the discriminant function on a sample obtained from the said population by this approach using a linear combination of new parameters.

Wearing Sensibility Related to Body Shape in Middle Aged Women / 체질인류학회지

The present study was performed to examine wearing sensibility related to body shape in middle aged women. Body measurements, front and side views and index values between girth measurements were used as the body shape comparison elements. The results obtained are as follows. 1. Bust girth, waist girth and hip girth in middle aged women showed greater values (respectively : 6%, 11.4% and 3.4%) than in young aged women. 2. For the drop value between hip girth and bust girth, the results were 7.3 cm in tweenties, 3.6 cm in thirties, 4.2 cm in forties, 1.5 cm in fifties and 0.7 cm in sixties. 3. Front and side shape examination: Assuming a value of 1.00 for the waist breadth and waist depth, the results in middle aged women were 0.7 and 1.2 in nipple and hip breadth, and 1.1 and 1.1 in bust and hip depth. 4. The sensibility related to body shape, abdoman, waist and arm were most reshaped elements by aging.