RESUMO
Antecedentes: la promoción de desafíos por parte de los padres constituye un recurso para el desarrollo positivo de los adolescentes y, específicamente, puede serlo para adolescentes que se implican en una actividad que requiere mucha dedicación, como lo es el deporte de alto rendimiento. Objetivos: el propósito de este trabajo es presentar las propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de Promoción de Desafíos por parte de los Padres en Deportistas de Alto Rendimiento y evaluar la contribución de esta variable en la experiencia óptima (flow) de estos adolescentes. Método: participaron 276 adolescentes de entre 11 y 19 años de edad ( M = 15.71; DE = 1.49) pertenecientes a las selecciones nacionales argentinas de diferentes deportes. El 54% eran varones ( n = 149) y el 46% mujeres ( n = 127), quienes respondieron un cuestionario sociodemográfico, la Escala de Promoción de Desafíos por parte de los Padres (EPDP) y la Escala de Experiencias Óptimas ( flow ) para Adolescentes. Resultados: a través del Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio, Análisis del Componente de la Varianza y de Generalizabilidad se obtuvieron adecuados indicadores de validez y fiabilidad para la EPDP (GFI = .99; AGFI = .98; CFI = 1; RMSEA = 0.0; RMR = .06; SRMR = .06; G relativo = .82; G absoluto = .81). La promoción de desafíos contribuye al flow desde la dimensión del apoyo y solo tiene un peso significativo en el grupo de mujeres. Conclusiones: este trabajo aporta un instrumento para los profesionales que trabajan con adolescentes y permite contribuir a promover experiencias positivas en el deporte de alto rendimiento.
Background: parents' promotion of challenges is a resource for adolescents' positive development and, specifically, it can constitute a resource for adolescents who engage in a high- commitment activity such as elite sports. Objectives: the aim of this work is to present the psychometric properties of the Parents' Promotion of Challenges Scale in elite athletes and to evaluate the contribution of this variable in the optimal experience, or flow, of these adolescents. Method: a total of 276 adolescents aged between 11 and 19 years ( M = 15.71; SD = 1.49) representing Argentinean national teams of different sports participated in the study. Fifty four percent (54%) were males ( n = 149) and 46% were females ( n = 127). The participants answered a socio- demographic questionnaire, the Parents' Promotion of Challenges Scale (EPDP), and the Flow State Scale for Adolescents. Results: the Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Component of Variance Analysis and Generalizability Analysis showed adequate indicators of validity and reliability for the EPDP (GFI = .99; AGFI = .98; CFI = 1; RMSEA = 0.0; RMR = .06; SRMR = .06; relative G = .82; absolute G = .81). Parents' promotion of challenges contributes to the flow through the support dimension and it is only significant for women. Conclusions: this research provides an instrument for professionals working with adolescents and allows to contribute to promoting positive experiences in elite sports.
RESUMO
El objetivo del artículo es analizar el desarrollo del concepto flow y su evolución epistemológica en el ámbito de la investigación deportiva. Se sugiere que la investigación sobre el flow se ha movido desde un interés inicial por describir estas experiencias, hacia una predilección por medirlo y controlarlo, de cara a predecir y facilitar el rendimiento deportivo. Esta evolución se ha materializado sin que la definición y delimitación del constructo haya sido resuelta satisfactoriamente. El artículo propone retomar la atención en la naturaleza lingüís- tica del flow y profundizar así en el significado que tienen estas experiencias para quienes las experimentan.
The objective of this paper is to analyze the of flow concept and its epistemolog- ical evolution within sport research. The analysis highlights that the investigation about flow changed its's initial interest in describing these experiences to privilege its’ measuring and control, aiming to predict and to facilitate sport performance. Nevertheless, this evolution has been materialized with no satisfactory definition or delimitation of this concept. This arti- cle suggests to retake the care with the linguistic nature of flow and to deepen, this way, the meaning of these experiences to those who live them.
O objetivo deste artigo é analisar o conceito de flow e sua evolução epistemológica no âmbito da pesquisa esportiva. A análise destaca que a investigação sobre o flow mudou seu interesse inicial em descrever estas experiências, para privilegiar sua medição e controle, a fim de prever e facilitar o desempenho atlético. Entretanto, essa evolução tem se materializado sem que a definição e delimitação desse conceito tenham sido concebidas satisfatoriamente. O artigo sugere retomar o cuidado da natureza linguística de flow e aprofundar, desse modo, o que significam essas experiências para quem as vive.
RESUMO
El objetivo de esta investigación es poner a prueba un modelo teórico que postula que el interés de los alumnos por la tarea escolar, la percepción de habilidad para desarrollar esa tarea y la percepción de desafío que la actividad presenta, ejercen un importante efecto sobre la experiencia óptima en el ámbito educativo. El modelo también postula que si bien la experiencia óptima es un constructo complejo formado por varias características, éstas pueden agruparse en tres factores: percepción de logro, activación cognitiva y calidad afectiva. Este modelo se puso a prueba mediante el uso de ecuaciones estructurales. Por otro lado, se estudió el efecto de la elección voluntaria de la actividad sobre los tres factores que componen la experiencia óptima, para ello se utilizó el análisis de varianza. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 295 alumnos de escuelas públicas y privadas de nivel socioeconómico medio de entre 9 y 15 años. Los resultados indican que el modelo teórico tuvo un muy buen ajuste a los datos empíricos. Asimismo, los datos resultantes del análisis de la varianza apoyan la hipótesis de que la elección voluntaria de realizar la actividad afecta la experiencia óptima.
The object of this investigation is to test a theoretical model that proposes that students' interest in school tasks, as well as the perception of abilities to develop those tasks and the perception of the challenges that these activities present, have an important impact on the optimal experience in the educational environment. The pattern also proposes that although the optimal experience is a complex construct formed by different characteristics, these can be grouped in three factors: perception of achievement, cognitive activation and affective quality. This model was tested by means of structural equation modelling. Additionally, the effect of the voluntary election of the activity on the three factors that compose the optimal experience has been studied by means of the use of ANOVAs. The sample was composed of 295 students aged 9 to 15 from public and private schools of medium socioeconomical level. The results indicate that the theoretical pattern was well adjusted to the empiric data. At the same time, the resulting data of the analysis of the variance support the hypothesis that the voluntary election to carry out the activity affects the optimal experience.
RESUMO
En el estudio que se informa se presentan tres modelos teóricos explicativos de la experiencia óptima. El primer modelo propone la experiencia óptima como un único factor compuesto por las ocho características que definen el flow. El segundo modelo propone que las características que integran la experiencia óptima podrían resumirse en dos factores: el primer factor incluiría las experiencias afectivas y cognitivas durante la realización de la tarea propiciadora de flow y el segundo factor estaría dado por la percepción de logro y habilidad para hacer frente a la tarea. Finalmente, el tercer modelo expone que serían necesarios cuatro factores para explicar la experiencia de flow: (a) capacidad cognitiva, (b) experiencia afectiva positiva, (c) percepción de habilidad y (d) percepción de logro durante la realización de la actividad. El objetivo de este trabajo fue investigar cuál de los tres modelos teóricos tiene una mejor adecuación a los datos empíricos. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 1.585 niños y adolescentes argentinos de 9 a 15 años, estudiantes de escuelas públicas y privadas. Para el análisis de los datos se empleó el modelo de ecuaciones estructurales, esta técnica permite testear modelos teóricos con datos empíricos. La evaluación de los índices resultantes de la aplicación de los modelos estructurales sugiere que el modelo de cuatro factores provee un mejor ajuste a los datos. Posteriormente se comprobó la existencia de dos factores de segundo orden subyacentes a los cuatro factores que explicarían el constructo experiencia óptima.
The flow is described as a positive and gratifying state of consciousness. The flow is associated with the perception of high challenges in the task at hand and personal skills high enough to face those challenges. Also is described it as a situation of high concentration, involvement, enjoyment, absorption in the task, unselfconsciousness, control, and clear-cut feedback on the course of the activity. People is involved in the task for its own sake, regardless of extrinsic rewards or social approval -in other words, on the basic of intrinsic motivation. A balance of high challenge and high skill defines the conditions where optimal experience is most likely to occur, but does not necessary describe the experience of flow. "Experientially, flow is characterized not only by a balance of challenges and skill but also by deep concentration, loss of self-consciousness, and deep engagement" (Hektner, Schmidt & Csikszentmihalyi, 2007, p. 46). In this investigation three explanatory theoretical models of the optimal experience are presented. The first model intends that the optimal experience is only a factor compound for the eight characteristics that define the flow. The second model intends that the characteristics that compose the optimal experience could be summarized in two factors: the first factor would include affective experiences and cognitive experiences during realization of the activity and the second factor would be given by achievement perception and ability perception of the task. Finally, the third model exposes that, would be necessary four factors to explain the flow experience: capacity cognitive, positive affective experience, ability perception and achievement perception, during the realization of the activity. The objective of this work is to investigate which of the three theoretical models has a better adaptation to the empiric data. The sample was composed by 1585 children and adolescents, between 9 and 15 years, students of public and private schools. For the analysis of the data it was used the methods of structural equations. The evaluation of the resulting indexes of the application of the structural models, suggests that the pattern of four factors provides a better adjustment to the data. Subse-quently was put on approval a new model that postulates that the optimal experience is a latent variable that can be explained by means of the existence of two underlying factors of second order: affect positive and activation cognitive, on one hand, and achievement perception and ability perception for the other one. The flow experience can be explained by a process that begins with the perception of an activity that is defiant and the person perceives that he/she has the enough capacities to reach with success the proposed end. The following stage would be given by the activation of the person's cognitive capacities to concentrate its attention in the realization of the task and then to be able to maintain it centered in the activity. The positive affection would arise when concluding the activity like a consequence of the same one. When a person is in flow state he/she feels the challenge of carrying out the activity the best thing possible and this takes it to constantly improve her abilities.