Entering the “Field”: Challenges of conducting fieldwork in an infertility clinic

Carrying out fieldwork in private infertility clinics poses its own specific set of challenges. Gaining access to these field sites not only obliges researchers to negotiate with gatekeepers but also to deal with structures of hierarchy and power. Based on my preliminary fieldwork in Lucknow city of Uttar Pradesh, I discuss the challenges of conducting fieldwork in infertility clinics and how methodological challenges push the researcher to question the academically established notions of the “field”, “fieldwork” and “research ethics”. The paper stresses the importance of discussing the challenges of doing fieldwork in private health setups and is an attempt to answer vital questions about the nature of fieldwork, how the fieldwork was conducted, and the need to include questions and dilemmas that anthropologists might face in the process of making decisions in the field.

Practical Application of Art-Based Research to First-Year Medical School Students' Community-Based Medical Education / 医学教育

Undergraduate medical education requires learning in both science and art. We have developed a learning model for use in first-year medical education that applies art-based research, which has been developed in sociology.　This is a method in which medical students themselves conduct research while creating works of art to solve local medical, health, and welfare problems, deepening their learning. They also share their artworks with other students.　The methodology consists of four steps: [I] groundwork, [II] collection of materials, [III] fieldwork and artwork, and [IV] appreciation of interactive artwork.　In the class, students take the initiative by creating works that are full of individuality and assertiveness. This learning model is a relatively new model for medical education through which students can deepen their understanding of the art of medicine.

Uma incursão pelo lado "não-respeitável" da pesquisa de campo / An incursion into the "non-respectable" side of fieldwork

Resumo Este artigo foi originalmente publicado em 1981. Ele discute questões éticas e metodológicas envolvidas no trabalho de campo com pessoas da mesma sociedade da antropóloga, mas de grupos subalternos, indagando: o que legitima os métodos científicos de investigação da vida dos outros, fazendo com que pareçam aceitáveis, ao invés de questionáveis? O estudo baseia-se na análise de Foucault sobre regimes de saber-poder nas ciências sociais, para entender o que molda diferentes metodologias de pesquisa e as práticas da autora. Considera que a pesquisa de campo é estruturada no contexto de um regime de produção de conhecimento científico que legitima relações de poder nas quais um pede para saber tudo e o outro se sente obrigado a dizer a verdade que, no entanto, só quem pergunta será capaz de revelar. O artigo argumenta que o que é apresentado como verdade ou em entrevistas ou no texto da análise é produto de uma certa relação, marcada por diferenças de poder e desigualdade social. Além disso, sugere que a relação de trabalho de campo é produtiva: o que é dito não existia antes para ser revelado, mas foi construído nessa relação desigual. Assim, a interpretação de dados de campo sempre tem que considerar as condições de sua produção.

Abstract This article was originally published in 1981. It addresses ethical and methodological questions involved in fieldwork among people from the anthropologist's own society, but from a subaltern social group. It asks: What does legitimate the scientific methods of investigating other people's lives, making them appear as acceptable instead of as object of resistance? It uses Foucault's analysis of social sciences' regimes of power-truth to understand what frames different methodologies of research and the author's practices. It considers that field research is structured in the context of a certain regime of production of scientific knowledge that legitimates relationships of power in which one asks to know everything and the others feel obliged to tell the truth that, however, only the questioner will be able to reveal. The article argues that what is presented as truth either in interviews or in the text of the analyst is the product of a certain relationship shaped by power imbalances and social inequality. Moreover, it suggests that the field relationship is productive: What is said did not exist before ready to be revealed, but was constructed in this uneven relationship. Therefore, the interpretation of field data must always consider the conditions of its production.

O método no centro: relatos de campo de uma pesquisa psicossocial de perspectiva etnográfica / La méthode dans le centre: les rapports sur le terrain d'une recherche psychosociale de perspective ethnographique / El método en el centro: relatos de campo de una investigación psicosocial de perspectiva etnográfica / The method at the center: field notes of a psychosocial research from an ethnographic perspective

Resumo O artigo tem por objetivo debater alguns efeitos do uso do referencial teórico-metodológico da etnografia em pesquisas de psicologia social, especialmente a etnografia multissituada. Para isso, toma o caso de uma pesquisa de doutorado desenvolvida nessa interface e discute parte de seus problemas e imprevistos, bem como as escolhas e recursos utilizados para enfrentá-los. Também procura apresentar os critérios que orientaram o desenho da pesquisa de modo geral.

Résumé L'article vise à discuter des effets de l'utilisation du référentielle théorique-méthodologique de l'ethnographie dans la recherche sur la psychologie sociale, en particulier l'ethnographie multi-située. Pour ce faire, on prend le cas d'une recherche doctorale développé dans cette interface et on discute une partie de leurs problèmes et inattendue, aussi que les choix et les ressources utilisées pour y remédier. Elle vise également à présenter les critères qui ont guidé le dessin de la recherche d'un mode générale.

Resumen El artículo tiene por objetivo debatir algunos efectos del uso del referencial teórico-metodológico de la etnografía en investigaciones de psicología social, en especial, la etnografía multilocal. Para ello, toma el caso de una investigación de doctorado desarrollada en dicha interfaz y discute parte de sus problemas e imprevistos, como también las opciones y recursos utilizados para enfrentarlos. También busca presentar los criterios que orientaron el diseño de la investigación de manera general.

Abstract The article aims to discuss some effects of the use of the ethnography theoretical-methodological reference in social psychology research, especially the multi-sited ethnography. For this purpose, it takes the case of a doctoral research developed in this interface and discusses some of their issues and contretemps, as well as the choices and resources used to address them. It also seeks to present the criteria that guided the research design in general terms.

Experiencing Leininger's stranger to trusted friend enabler as a novice ethnonursing researcher

@#<p style="text-align: justify;">Leininger espoused that when studying cultures, researchers are likely to discover authentic and credible data when they are viewed by the participants as trusted friends. The Stranger to Trusted Friend Enabler was formulated to guide researchers in identifying indicators that a researcher has become the participants' trusted friend. This article presents my reflections on using Leininger's Stanger to Trusted Friend Enabler as a novice ethnonursing researcher. From my own experience, I have identified four hallmarks of a trusting relationship during fieldwork that correspond with the indicators of a trusting relationship identified by Leininger: (1) participants voluntarily share information about their culture and their personal experiences; (2) participants express concern for the researcher's welfare through their words and actions; (3) participants give the researcher a sense of community identity, such as a native name; and (4) participants suggest steps to further improve the trustworthiness of the study.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">One of the limitations of the Stranger to Trusted Friend Enabler, however, is the fact that it only focuses on assessing the participants' trust towards the researcher. A successful ethnographic research requires mutual trust between the researcher and participants. From my experience in conducting an ethnonursing research, I have noted that aside from the participants' trust towards me, my trust towards them was also essential in obtaining rich and accurate data. Furthermore, the transition from being a stranger to a trusted friend is not a linear process in ethnonursing and in other types of ethnographic research. As a researcher transitions to become a trusted friend, he or she does not totally abandon his or her sense of alienation to the researched. The scientific nature of ethnography requires researchers to be a stranger and a trusted friend at the same time.</p>

Afetividade e práxis transformadora na pesquisa qualitativa / Afetividad y práxis transformadora en la investigación cualitativa / Affectivity and transforming praxis in qualitative research

Resumo A partir da premissa de que a realização de pesquisas acadêmicas pode estar engajada com a transformação social, principalmente em territórios marcados pela desigualdade, pretendemos com este artigo dar visibilidade à intersubjetividade e ao compromisso ético-político como elementos balizadores da atividade de pesquisa. As pesquisas descritas, de caráter qualitativo, referenciadas pela etnografia e pesquisa participante foram realizadas em uma comunidade da Baixada Santista, no estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Os resultados indicaram que a riqueza da pesquisa está em seu processo de construção de vínculos afetivos e sociais, na medida em que cria espaços de troca de experiências e diálogo, os quais, por sua vez, geram novos aprendizados conjuntos, entre os atores sociais envolvidos. Além disso, estas pesquisas, engajadas com o fortalecimento comunitário, desencadearam outras atividades, destacando a extensão universitária no território.

Resumen A partir de la premisa de que la realización de la investigación académica se puede acoplar con la transformación social, especialmente en las zonas marcadas por la desigualdad, tenemos la intención de dar visibilidad a intersubjetividad y al compromiso ético-político como guías para los miembros de la actividad de investigación. La investigación descrita, cualitativa, la que hace referencia a la etnografía y la encuesta participante, se llevó a cabo en una comunidad de la Bajada Santista en el estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Los resultados indicaron que la riqueza de la investigación se encuentra en el proceso de construcción de lazos sociales y emocionales, ya que crea espacios de intercambio de experiencias y el diálogo, que, a su vez, son capaces de generar nuevos conjuntos de aprendizaje entre los actores sociales involucrados. Por otra parte, estas investigaciones, comprometidas con el fortalecimiento de la comunidad, originaron otras actividades, destacándose la extensión universitaria en el territorio.

Abstract Taking as a starting point the premise that conducting academic research can be engaged in social change, particularly in areas marked by social inequality, we intend with this article to give visibility to intersubjetivity and ethical-political commitment as a guide for members of the research activity. The research described, which has qualitative character, is referenced by ethnography and participant survey and was carried out in Baixada Santista's community in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The results indicated that much of the good aspects of research are due to the process of building social and emotional bonds, to the extent that such bonds allow for experiences to be shared and stimulates dialogue, which, in turn, generate new learning sets among the social actors involved. Furthermore, this research engaged with the goal of community strengthening, which triggered other activities, the main one being university outreach programs in the territory.

Contributions to a Brazilian Code of Conduct for Fieldwork in Geology: an approach based on Geoconservation and Geoethics

ABSTRACT When considering the numerous events that have prohibited the development of scientific projects or caused destruction of outcrops, it is clear that there is rapidly increasing necessity to define a Brazilian Code of Conduct for geological fieldwork. In general, this destruction is attributed to lack of knowledge as to the relevance of geological sites. The aim of this Code of Conduct is to guide geologists to adopt good practices during geoscience activities. Proposed guidelines are based on Codes of Conduct from other countries, mainly Scotland and England, on situations described in papers and on the personal experience of the authors. In this paper 29 points are suggested, in order to guarantee that fieldwork is conducted in accordance with geoethics, geoconservation and sustainability values. The proposal is structured in three parts: (1) Behavior and practices in respect to local traditions and providing information to the population; (2) Measures to minimize degradation on outcrops; and (3) Safety. The proposal seeks to broaden the debate on the need for responsible behavior during fieldwork, in order to promote respect for geodiversity. Through this code, Brazilian geoscientists will be able to contribute to the conservation of geological heritage and of outcrops with special educational relevance.

4. Common values as nurtured in the field / 医学教育

<p>　With medical education in Japan now undergoing a radical reformation, so too is education for the humanities and social sciences in Japanese medical schools. As an anthropologist, I have long used fieldwork as a method of research and education. In the present study, I argue that fieldwork is not only effective in nurturing perspectives based on the humanities and social sciences in medical education, but that it also contributes to the development of basic qualities required of medical professionals. Specifically, these basic qualities refer to "common values" existing among a group of people living in the same locality who share similar cultural characteristics when dealing with the everyday affairs of life. I show how these values are nurtured in the field through students' actual sense of presence in the world they share with various living creatures.</p>

Peopling Global Health / A Saúde Global centrada nas pessoas

The field of Global Health brings together a vastly diverse array of actors working to address pressing health issues worldwide with unprecedented financial and technological resources and informed by various agendas. While Global Health initiatives are booming and displacing earlier framings of the field (such as tropical medicine or international health), critical analyses of the social, political, and economic processes associated with this expanding field — an “open source anarchy” on the ground — are still few and far between. In this essay, we contend that, among the powerful players of Global Health, the supposed beneficiaries of interventions are generally lost from view and appear as having little to say or nothing to contribute. We make the case for a more comprehensive and people-centered approach and demonstrate the crucial role of ethnography as an empirical lantern in Global Health. By shifting the emphasis from diseases to people and environments, and from trickle-down access to equality, we have the opportunity to set a humane agenda that both realistically confronts challenges and expands our vision of the future of global communities...

O campo da saúde global articula um diversificado leque de atores que trabalham para resolver problemas prementes de saúde em todo o mundo, com recursos financeiros e tecnológicos sem precedentes e munidos de agendas das mais variadas. Apesar das iniciativas em saúde global estarem crescendo de forma expressiva e deslocando enquadramentos anteriores do campo (como a medicina tropical ou saúde internacional), as análises críticas dos processos sociais, políticos e econômicos associados a essa expansão ainda são escassas. Neste artigo sustentamos, a partir de uma perspectiva que leva em conta os sujeitos, que o campo da saúde global é uma “anarquia de código aberto”. Em geral, perdem-se de vista os supostos beneficiários das intervenções, que aparecem como tendo pouco a dizer e nada a contribuir. Argumentamos por uma abordagem mais abrangente e centrada nas pessoas, demonstrando o papel crucial da etnografia como lanterna empírica na saúde global. Ao mudar a ênfase das doenças às pessoas e seus contextos e do acesso de cima para baixo para a equidade, temos a oportunidade de definir uma agenda humana que simultaneamente confronta realisticamente os desafios que enfrentamos e expande nossa visão sobre o futuro das comunidades globais...

Survey of traditional beliefs in the Hungarian Csángó and Székely ethnomedicine in Transylvania, Romania

Transylvania, part of Romania, has a long-standing culture of Hungarian ethnomedicinal practices. The aim of this study was to review the unexplored ethnopharmacological use of plants, animals and other materials, focusing mainly on the beliefs surrounding them; and compare them with traditional uses from other countries and with scientific literature. An ethnobotanical inventory was conducted among Csángó and Székely Hungarians in three areas of the country between 2007 and 2012. Questionnaires included medical and non-medical uses of plants, animals, and other substances with rational and irrational elements. Altogether 22 plants, twelve animals, and ten other substances had documented uses for various beliefs. The treatments utilize magical numbers, like 3 and 9, to define peculiar order, tools, and like-minded aspects. Plants were used for prediction (e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris L.), protection (e.g. Corylus avellana L.), and as symbols (e.g. Arctium lappa L.). In addition to the use of animals (e.g. Salamandra salamandra L.) or no longer used elements (use of Lytta vesicatoria L.), the employment of other substances (e.g. ash, milk) was also documented. The frequency of the documented uses is in continuous decline due to environmental and social changes, and the increased prevalence of conventional healthcare. Hence, the priority of their conservation is of pivotal importance nowadays. .

Etnografiando travestis: preguntas, tensiones y aprendizajes sobre el "estar ahí" / Doing ethnography with travestis: queries, tensions, and learning from "being there" / Etnografando travestis: perguntas, tensões e aprendizagens sobre o "estar aí"

Este artículo interroga la construcción de vínculos etnográficos en dos obras pioneras sobre travestis, con una intención retrospectiva sobre la propia investigación en una agrupación de travestis de Buenos Aires. Se reflexiona sobre la implicancia de los/as antropólogos/as "en campo" -en tanto seres sexuados/as y generizados/as- preguntándose además sobre las formas en que son interpeladas/os durante su labor junto a integrantes de organizaciones sociales -en la que el activismo resulta ser la extensión lógica del compromiso a la reciprocidad que subyace en la práctica antropológica.

This paper analyzes two pioneer ethnographic texts about travestis and uses them as a background to a research project with a travesti organization in Buenos Aires. It addresses anthropologists' commitments as fieldworkers -as sexual and gendered beings-, and how those are questioned while working with activist organizations. Findings indicate that a researcher's own political engagement is a logical extension of the reciprocity involved in anthropological practice.

Este artigo indaga a respeito da construção de vínculos etnográficos em duas obras pioneiras sobre travestis, com uma intenção retrospectiva sobre uma investigação própria em um agrupamento de travestis da cidade de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Reflete-se sobre a implicação dos/as antropólogos/as "em campo" - enquanto seres sexuados e generizados - indagando, além disso, sobre as formas em que são interpelados/as durante seu trabalho junto a integrantes de organizações sociais, em que o ativismo é o resultado de uma extensão lógica do compromisso com a reciprocidade que subjaz na prática antropológica.

4. Application of cultural anthropological fieldwork to community-based experiential learning / 医学教育

  In the current Japanese education for medical and health professionals, experiential learning in communities is widely promoted. Students visit a community and participate in community life. This paper introduces the perspectives and methods of cultural anthropological fieldwork and examines how they can be applied to community-based experiential learning and what effects are produced. This paper is based on a case study in a Japanese medical school. What is significant in experiential learning through fieldwork is that students participate in community life firsthand and retain this firsthand experience as a sensory experience. This ingrained sense is then transformed into new findings, not through application of the students’ pre-existing knowledge but through subsequent reflective practices.

Dilemas éticos en el trabajo de campo: temas olvidados en la investigación cualitativa en salud en Iberoamérica / Ethical dilemmas in fieldwork: forgotten issues in qualitative health research in Iberoamerica

En este trabajo se exploran algunos dilemas éticos enfrentados durante el trabajo de campo en la investigación cualitativa en salud. La premisa es que los códigos éticos no son suficientes para orientar las relaciones entre los investigadores y los informantes siendo necesaria una práctica reflexiva para enfrentar los mismos. La reflexión se centra en cuatro situaciones del trabajo de campo y sus dilemas. El tiempo social de la vida académica estructura la agenda de trabajo y el investigador se enfrenta a la disyuntiva de seguir los tiempos y ritmos de la academia o negociar con los informantes una agenda conjunta. El investigador también debe decidir cuál de sus múltiples identidades habrá de utilizar para ser aceptado, y al mismo tiempo decidir si oculta o no quien es realmente. En el establecimiento de una relación de intimidad con los informantes el investigador debe resolver si abre su vida personal. Y al momento de definir las formas de reciprocidad, decidir si lo hará de acuerdo a los valores de la academia o a los de los nativos. Se concluye argumentando la necesidad de crear una práctica reflexiva sobre estos y otros dilemas dirigida a colocar una agenda de temas y formas de descolonización en el debate ético en Iberoamérica.

This paper explores some ethical dilemmas faced while doing fieldwork. Ethical norms are not enough to appraise the relationship between researchers and participants; a reflexivity practice is needed to understand the dilemmas aroused during this process. Here four issues faced during fieldwork are presented. The academic social time usually defines the schedule of fieldwork; hence, the researcher may decide to follow the academic schedule or to arrange a different schedule with informants. Researchers usually decide which part of their identity will be disclosed for introducing themselves to the informants; but may also decide to hide who really he/she is. Researchers may cope with the dilemma to disclose their private life to informants during the fieldwork. Researchers also may decide to behave according to academic cultural norms of reciprocity or according to the cultural norms of participants. Finally, a reflexivity movement should be developed in Iberoamerica to define an agenda on ethical issues and to develop decolonizing strategies to debate these ethical dilemmas.

Telégrafos e inventário do território no Brasil: as atividades científicas da Comissão Rondon (1907-1915) / Telegraphs and an inventory of the territory of Brazil: the scientific work of the Rondon Commission (1907-1915)

As atividades de construção de infra-estrutura de comunicações realizadas pela Comissão Rondon (1900-1930) notabilizaram-se por seus contatos com sociedades indígenas. Pouco conhecidas são as pesquisas científicas feitas por seus membros indissociáveis dos objetivos de modernização, ocupação e integração do interior do país por parte do então recém-instaurado regime republicano. Este artigo analisa o impacto das atividades científicas da Comissão em áreas como botânica, geologia e zoologia, assim como o inédito campo de trabalho que elas ofereceram para pesquisadores e naturalistas brasileiros crescentemente incorporados às suas diferentes viagens de exploração.

In its work to build communication infrastructure, the Rondon Commission (1900-30) became well known for its contacts with indigenous societies. Little, however, has been written about the scientific research conducted by its members, that was inseparable from the recently inaugurated republican regime's goals of modernization, settlement, and integration of the interior with the rest of Brazil. The article analyzes the impact of the Commission's scientific work in areas like botany, geology, and zoology, as well as its impact on the new field of work thus opened to Brazilian researchers and naturalists, who took part in these exploratory journeys in ever greater numbers.

Antigüedades portátiles: transportes, ruinas y comunicaciones en la arqueología del siglo XIX / Portable antiquities: transportation, ruins, and communications in nineteenth-century archeology

En este trabajo presentamos un problema de la arqueología del siglo XIX: la transformación de las ruinas de la antigüedad americana en evidencia científica. Tomando el caso de la exploración arqueológica de Palenque luego de la independencia centroamericana y mexicana, analizaremos los intentos por hacer portátil las ruinas de una ciudad hallada en la selva a fines del siglo XVIII, analizando algunos de los medios creados y utilizados para resolver su transporte.

The article addresses an issue in nineteenth-century archeology: the transformation of ancient American ruins into scientific evidence. It focuses specifically on the case of Palenque, a city discovered in the jungle in the late eighteenth century. The archeological exploration of this find, which occurred shortly after Central American and Mexican independence, entailed efforts to make these ruins portable. The article analyzes some of the means devised and used in their transportation.

Redes y medios de transporte en el desarrollo de expediciones científicas en Argentina (1850-1910) / Transportation networks and means in the development of scientific expeditions in Argentina (1850-1910)

Examina la relación entre el avance en las tecnologías del transporte y el desarrollo de las expediciones de carácter científico entre fines del siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX en Argentina. Se muestra cómo la expansión a escala nacional de la red de ferrocarriles impactó en el desarrollo de las prácticas en el terreno, ampliando el acceso a sitios distantes de las instituciones científicas ubicadas en Córdoba, Buenos Aires y La Plata, simplificando el movimiento de equipamiento, colecciones y personal. Se toman como ejemplo las expedicións realizadas por Hermann Burmeister (1857-1860), por los científicos de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Córdoba y las exploraciones arqueológicas en las provincias del noroeste organizadas por instituciones científicas con sede en Buenos Aires y La Plata.

The article explores the relation between the advance of transportation technology and the development of scientific expeditions between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in Argentina. Expansion of the railway network on a national scale impacted the development of the earth sciences by facilitating access to distant places by scientific institutions located in Córdoba, Buenos Aires, and La Plata and also by simplifying the movement of equipment, scientific collections, and personnel. Hermann Burmeister's expedition (1857-60), expeditions by scientists from the Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Córdoba, and archeological digs in the northwestern provinces, organized by scientific institutions headquartered in Buenos Aires and La Plata, serve as examples.