Lineamientos técnicos para el abordaje integral de la leptospirosis / Technical guidelines for the comprehensive approach to leptospirosis

En el país es necesario incrementar la conciencia y el conocimiento de la leptospirosis como un problema de salud pública(, por lo que es necesario continuar con la vigilancia epidemiológica y el abordaje integral a las personas que adolecen de leptospirosis, por tal razón se vuelve necesaria la actualización de los presentes Lineamientos Técnicos, los cuales definen la detección, manejo, investigación, notificación y análisis de datos que orientarán las medidas de prevención y control de la leptospirosis en El Salvador

In the country it is necessary to increase awareness and knowledge of leptospirosis as a public health problem, so it is necessary to continue with epidemiological surveillance and a comprehensive approach to people who suffer from leptospirosis, for this reason updating becomes necessary. of these Technical Guidelines, which define the detection, management, investigation, notification and analysis of data that will guide the prevention and control measures of leptospirosis in El Salvador

Leptospirosis: predictores de mala evolución clínica en pacientes hospitalizados, 25 años de experiencia / Leptospirosis: predictors of poor outcomes in hospitalized patients, 25 years of experience

Introducción: La leptospirosis es una zoonosis que cons-tituye un problema emergente de salud pública. La insufi-ciencia renal, plaquetopenia y compromiso respiratorio se describen como predictores de mortalidad.Objetivos: Describir características clínicas, radiológicas y de laboratorio de individuos hospitalizados por leptos-pirosis y evaluar los predictores de mala evolución clínica (MEC).Materiales y métodos: Estudio de cohorte de inclusión ambispectiva de pacientes con leptospirosis internados en un hospital de la ciudad de Santa Fe entre 1997 y 2022. Se definió MEC como la admisión a Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos (UCI), requerimiento de asistencia respiratoria mecánica (ARM) y/o muerte. Se utilizaron las pruebas de Chi2, test T de Student o la U de Mann-Whitney, según co-rrespondiera. Se construyó una regresión logística binaria con las variables con p<0,05.Resultados: 101 pacientes, 87,1% (n=88) hombres, media-na de edad de 29 (RIC 20-44) años. La fiebre fue el síntoma más frecuente [83,2% (n=84)], seguido del compromiso di-gestivo [62,4% (n=63)]. Las alteraciones de laboratorio más frecuentes fueron: eritrosedimentación elevada [91,9% (n=79)] y leucocitosis [61% (n=61)]. Se observó MEC en el 25,7% (n=26). El 25,7% (n=26) fue admitido en UCI, el 13,9% (n=14) requirió ARM y el 5% (n=5) falleció. La presencia de plaquetopenia (OR=13,3, IC95% 2-80), las alteraciones en la radiografía de tórax (OR=33,5, IC95% 5-225) y la ausencia de cefalea (OR=6,8, IC95% 1-32) fueron predictores inde-pendientes de MEC.Conclusiones: En concordancia con la bibliografía, la afec-tación pulmonar y plaquetopenia son factores de riesgo para la mala evolución clínica. En nuestra serie, la cefalea constituyó un síntoma protector

Introduction: Leptospirosis is an emerging zoonotic di-sease that poses a public health problem. Renal failu-re, thrombocytopenia, and respiratory involvement have been described as predictors of mortality.Objectives: To describe the clinical, radiological, and la-boratory characteristics of hospitalized individuals with leptospirosis and evaluate predictors of poor clinical outcomes (PCO).Materials and methods: A prospective cohort study was conducted including patients with leptospirosis admit-ted to a hospital in the city of Santa Fe between 1997 and 2022. PCO was defined as admission to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), requirement for mechanical respiratory assistance (MRA), and/or death. The chi-square test, Student>s t-test, or Mann-Whitney U test were used as appropriate. A binary logistic regression was performed with variables having p<0.05.Results: Out of the 101 patients included, 87.1% (n=88) were male, with a median age of 29 (IQR 20-44) years. Fever was the most common symptom [83.2% (n=84)], followed by digestive involvement [62.4% (n=63)]. The most frequent laboratory abnormalities were elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate [91.9% (n=79)] and leuko-cytosis [61% (n=61)]. PCO was observed in 25.7% (n=26) of patients, with 25.7% (n=26) admitted to the ICU, 13.9% (n=14) requiring MRA, and 5% (n=5) resulting in death. The presence of thrombocytopenia (OR=13.3, 95% CI 2-80), abnormalities in chest X-rays (OR=33.5, 95% CI 5-225), and absence of headache (OR=6.8, 95% CI 1-32) were predictors of PCO. Conclusions: Consistent with the literature, pulmonary involvement and thrombocytopenia are independent risk factors for poor clinical outcomes. In our series, the pre-sence of headache was a protective symptom

Epidemiological characteristics of leptospirosis in China from 2010 to 2022 / 中国血吸虫病防治杂志

Objective To analyze the epidemiological characteristics of leptospirosis in China from 2010 to 2022, so as to provide insights into formulation of the leptospirosis control strategy. Methods All data pertaining to clinically diagnosed cases and confirmed cases of leptospirosis reported in China from January 1, 2010 to December 31, 2022 was collected from Chinese Disease Prevention and Control Information Management System. The spatial, temporal and population distributions, and report and diagnosis institutions of leptospirosis cases were analyzed using a descriptive epidemiological method. Results A total of 4 559 leptospirosis cases were reported in China from 2010 to 2022, with an annual average number of 351 cases, and the number of reported leptospirosis cases reduced from 679 cases in 2010 to 158 cases in 2018. A total of 4 276 leptospirosis cases were reported in Sichuan Province, Yunnan Province, Guangdong Province, Hunan Province, Fujian Province, Zhejiang Province, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Anhui Province, Jiangxi Province and Guizhou Province, accounting for 93.79% of the total number of leptospirosis cases in China. The number of leptospirosis cases had recently appeared a remarkable decline in Yunnan Province, while a significant rise was seen in the number of leptospirosis cases in two provinces of Zhejiang and Guangdong. No leptospirosis cases were reported in Henan Province from 2010 to 2020; however, there were 5 cases and 2 cases reported in 2021 and 2022, respectively. There was only one leptospirosis case reported in Shaanxi Province from 2010 to 2017; however, leptospirosis cases were reported in the province for 5 consecutive years since 2018. Leptospirosis cases were reported throughout the year in China from 2010 to 2022, with the peak of incidence found during the period between August and October, and the peak of leptospirosis incidence varied in provinces. A higher number of leptospirosis cases was seen among men than among women, with a male to female ratio of 2.3:1, and the median age of leptospirosis cases was 50 years (interquartile range, 23 years), with the highest proportion of leptospirosis cases reported at ages of 51 to 60 years (23.21%). Among all reported leptospirosis cases, 53.28% were confirmed cases, and the proportion of confirmed cases increased from 35.05% in 2010 to 61.66% in 2022. In addition, there were 67.22% of leptospirosis cases (2 937 cases) reported by comprehensive hospitals, 20.44% (893 cases) by disease control and prevention institutions, 7.23% (316 cases) by grassroots healthcare institutions and 5.10% (223 cases) by other healthcare and medical institutions, and the mortality of reported leptospirosis cases was 1.07% in China from 2010 to 2022, with a higher mortality seen among men than among women (1.39% vs. 0.36%; χ2 = 9.52, P = 0.002). Conclusions The incidence of leptospirosis remained at a low level in China from 2010 to 2022, and southern China was still the main endemic area for leptospirosis. The epidemiological characteristics of leptospirosis cases varied in endemic provinces, and leptospirosis cases had been continued to be reported in Shaanxi and Henan provinces, which should be paid much attention to. Intensified surveillance of leptospirosis, improved diagnosis and treatment capability of leptospirosis cases and leptospirosis control with adaptations to local circumstance are recommended.

Leptospirosis Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Town Service Workers in Kuching, Malaysia

@#Introduction: This study aimed to evaluate town service personnel’s knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding leptospirosis prevention and the influencing factors to its practice. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Kuching, Malaysia, involving town service workers using a self-administered validated questionnaire comprising sociodemographic and KAP information. The eligibility criteria included 18 years old and above and having worked for more than six months. The KAP was determined using descriptive analysis, and associations were identified using logistic regression analysis. Results: About 189 town service workers responded, giving a response rate of 87.5%, and a majority of them were Bumiputera Sarawak, with a mean age of 38.6 (±11.00) years old. The mean duration of employment was 9.3 (±6.99) years. About 88.9% had good knowledge of leptospirosis. Meanwhile, 85.2% and 79.9% had satisfactory attitudes and good practices. The knowledge on the aetiology of leptospirosis ranged from 25% to 94%. No significant association was found between the knowledge score and income with the practice score. The attitude score (AOR 1.161; 95% CI = 1.090, 1.238; p = 0.000) and working experience (AOR 1.174; 95% CI = 1.023, 1.346; p = 0.022) were found to be significantly associated with their practice score. Conclusion: Most town service workers have good knowledge and practice regarding leptospirosis prevention. Workers with good attitudes demonstrate good practising habits toward leptospirosis prevention. Awareness and activities related to disease prevention should be encouraged to ensure the continuity of a positive attitude.

Evaluación de la calidad médica asistencial a pacientes hospitalizados con sospecha clínica de leptospirosis

Introducción: La utilización de la evaluación de la calidad de la atención en el ámbito de la salud ha generado resultados importantes que permiten la mejora de los servicios ofrecidos. Objetivo: Evaluar la calidad asistencial a pacientes con sospecha clínica de leptospirosis. Métodos: Se realizó una investigación en servicios de salud mediante un diseño observacional, analítico. Se incluyeron 166 pacientes que ingresaron con sospecha clínica de leptospirosis, en los Hospitales Provinciales Clínicos Quirúrgicos "Manuel Ascunce Domenech" y "Amalia Simoni" de la ciudad de Camagüey, en el período enero-diciembre de 2022. Se estudiaron las variables: grupos etarios, sexo, color de la piel, lugar de procedencia, indicadores de estructura, proceso y resultados. Resultados: Primaron los pacientes en edades comprendidas entre 33-44 años (25,9 %), sexo masculino (84,3 %) y procedentes del municipio Camagüey (63,9 %). El 56,2 % fueron trabajadores expuestos, sin haber sido vacunados (95,9 %). La evaluación global del indicador estructura resultó de 77,8 %, entretanto, el proceso y los resultados obtuvieron 30,4 y 23,1 %, respectivamente. Conclusiones: La evaluación de la atención médica brindada, en cuanto a criterios de procesos y resultados, fue inadecuada; por el contrario, el indicador estructura resultó adecuado.

Introduction: The evaluation of the quality of care in the health field has generated important results allowing to improve the services offered. Objective: To evaluate the quality of care for patients with clinical suspicion of leptospirosis. Methods: An investigation was carried out in health services through an observational and analytical design including 166 patients who were admitted with clinical suspicion of leptospirosis at Manuel Ascunce Domenech and Amalia Simoni Provincial Clinical Surgical Hospitals in Camagüey city, during January -December 2022. The studied variables were age groups, sex, skin color, place of origin, structure, process and results indicators. Results: Patients aged between 33-44 years (25.9%), male (84.3%), and from Camagüey municipality (63.9%) predominated. 56.2% were non vaccinated workers under exposure (95.9%). The overall evaluation of the structure indicator was 77.8%, while the process and results obtained 30.4 and 23.1%, respectively. Conclusions: The evaluation of the medical care provided, in terms of process and outcome criteria, was inadequate; in contrast, the structure indicator was adequate.

Leptospiral uveitis- “Transition ‘from epidemic to endemic form” difficulties in laboratory confirmation

Purpose: Leptospirosis is a waterborne zoonotic disease that primarily causes systemic illness, followed by uveitis. After heavy flooding in Madurai district, an epidemic outbreak of systemic and ocular leptospirosis occurred in 1994. Our data shows a transition to endemicity after each epidemic. Aim: The aim of this study is to report the clinical signs, epidemic outbreaks, and persistent endemicity of leptospiral uveitis, as well as the diagnostic dilemmas associated with it. Methods: A retrospective analysis of clinical signs was conducted using medical records of leptospiral uveitis patients over a period of 27 years (1994–2020) in a tertiary care eye hospital. The clinical workup of uveitis included a detailed clinical history, systemic, and ophthalmic examination. Microagglutination tests (MATs) was done at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta and later in our regional laboratory. Serum samples were collected from human systemic leptospirosis cases and a small group of animals in and around Madurai. Results: The first epidemic outbreak resulted in 200 seropositive patients. Subsequent epidemic outbreaks occurred in 1997, 1998, 2001, 2005, and 2012, with Madurai experiencing multiple outbreaks. However, the disease remained endemic, with 25–50 patients being observed per year in between the peaks. Ocular examination revealed acute non?granulomatous uveitis (94.9%), pan uveitis (59.8%), vitreous inflammatory reaction (55.4%), retinal vasculitis (29.5%), disc hyperemia (20.9%), and hypopyon. (16.2%). New serovars emerged every year, resulting in decreased sensitivity of the MAT. Over time, the MAT started to miss diagnoses. Conclusion: The persistent endemicity of leptospiral uveitis emphasizes the need for accessible diagnostic tests. The low performance of the MAT can be attributable to the use of an older panel. The incorporation of new isolates in the MAT by a national laboratory will improve the accuracy of diagnosis

Fatores socioeconômicos associados à leptospirose no estadodo Acre, Amazônia ocidental brasileira (2007-2020) / Socioeconomic factors associated with leptospirosis in the stateof Acre, western Brazilian Amazon (2007-2020)

Introdução: doença provocada por infecção de origem bacteriana, a leptospirose é um dos agravos mais negligenciados no Brasil, estando associada a características socioeconômicas. Objetivo: analisar possíveis associações entre taxas de incidência da doença e fatores socioeconômicos no estado do Acre, a partir de análises espaciais. Material e Método: estudo ecológico com uso de dados secundários, sendo feita análise de autocorrelação espacial pelo Índice de Moran Local Bivariado, entre variáveis socioeconômicas e taxa média de incidência de leptospirose de todo o período de estudo. Adicionalmente, a análise espaçotemporal foi desenvolvida por meio de varredura cilíndrica estatística de Kulldorff, com raio de 70 quilômetros e distribuição de probabilidade de Poisson. Resultados: a maior quantidade de casos foi observada em homens, pardos e na faixa etária de 20 a 39 anos, em ambiente domiciliar e em pessoas com ensino fundamental 1 e 2 incompletos. Conclusão: a partir das análises estatísticas espaciais, destacaram-se municípios das partes norte e sul do estado. Ressalta-se que há possibilidade de subnotificação de casos, o que poderia ser analisado a partir de estudos que coletem dados primários.

Introduction: disease caused by infection of bacterial origin, leptospirosis is one of the most neglected diseases in Brazil, being associated with socioeconomic characteristics. Objective: to analyze possible associations between disease rates and socioeconomic factors in the state of Acre, based on spatial analysis. Material and Method: ecological study using secondary data, with analysis of spatial autocorrelation by the Moran Local Bivariate Index, between socioeconomic variables and mean rate of leptospirosis throughout the study period. Additionally, the space-time analysis was performed using Kulldorff statistical cylindrical sweep, with a radius of 70 kilometers and Poisson probability distribution. Results: the highest number of cases was observed in men, brown and in the age group of 20 to 39 years old, in the home environment and in people with incomplete elementary school 1 and 2. Conclusion: from the spatial statistical analyses, municipalities in the northern and southern parts of the state stood out. It should be noted that there is a possibility of underreporting of cases, which could be analyzed based on studies that collect primary data.

Hyperacute Liver Failure with Multi-organ Dysfunction Syndrome (MODS) by Leptospirosis: A Case Report

Introduction: Leptospirosis may have multi-organ involvement in its severe form with potentially life-threatening consequences. However, acute fulminant hepatic failure is very uncommonly reported. A case study is presented here with fulminant hepatic failure and a diagnostic dilemma for etiology. Case history: A 40-year-old man with no significant medical history presented with fever, muscle pain, weakness, and pain in the upper abdomen. On clinical work, he has developed multi-organ hepatic, respiratory, and renal failure. A timely workup was done, but due to the rapid progression of the disease, the patient succumbed to the disease in the intensive care unit by the time his report for positive leptospirosis test arrived. Conclusion: Leptospirosis must be considered as an important differential diagnosis of acute liver failure patients. An early suspicion for leptospirosis in patients with fulminant hepatic failure and multi-organ failure in India particularly in the rainy season is warranted owing to its high mortality rate.

Estudo soro-epidemiológico da leptospirose canina de amostras coletadas em bairros residenciais de Cruz das Almas-BA, Brasil / Seroepidemiologic study of canine leptospirosis from samples collected in residensial neighbothoods in Cruz das Almas ­ BA, Brazil

A leptospirose é uma doença infectocontagiosa, causada por espiroquetas antigenicamente distintas da bactéria Leptospira interrogans. Os cães representam um importante elo na transmissão da leptospirose, visto que, aparentemente sadios, podem albergar leptospiras e eliminá-las no meio ambiente. Com o objetivo de se conhecer a prevalência sorológica anti-leptospírica em cães de Cruz das Almas - BA e os fatores de risco para essa zoonose, foram coletadas amostras de sangue de 200 cães. A prova diagnóstica utilizada foi a Soroaglutinação Microscópica, testando-se 19 sorovares. Das 200 amostras testadas, 60 foram reagentes. Os resultados demonstram que a sororeatividade dos cães representam risco de disseminação da leptospirose para outros animais e para o ser humano.

Leptospirosis is an infectious disease, caused by spirochetes antigenically distinct from the bacteria Leptospira interrogans. Dogs represent an important link in the transmission of leptospirosis, since, apparently healthy, they can house leptospires and eliminate them in the environment. In order to know the anti-leptospiric serological prevalence in dogs from Cruz das Almas - BA and the risk factors for this zoonosis, blood samples were collected from 200 dogs. The diagnostic test used was Microscopic Soroagglutination, testing 19 serovars. Of the 200 samples tested, 60 were reagents. The results demonstrate that the seroreactivity of dogs represents a risk of spreading leptospirosis to other animals and to humans.

Leptospirosis con enfermedad de Weil que debuta como abdomen agudo. Reporte de caso / Leptospirosis with Weil Syndrome debuting with acute abdomen, Case Report

La leptospirosis es una enfermedad de distribución mundial que se ubica dentro de las zoonosis, siendo un punto de partida importante el ambiente donde se desarrolla el paciente, pasa de ser una infección leve, hasta su presentación más complicada que es el síndrome de Weil (presentación diseminada), que al no detectarse a tiempo se relaciona con altas tasas de mortalidad. Su diagnóstico de probabilidad se establece por medio del criterio clínico (signos y síntomas de sospecha), más el nexo epidemiológico, el cual podrá corroborarse con los resultados de los estudios complementarios (marcadores inmunológicos), siendo indispensable para el tratamiento un soporte oportuno y la selección adecuada del esquema antibiótico. A continuación, se expone un caso de una mujer de 25 años con antecedente personal de infección por SARS-CoV-2 (RT-PCR positivo) cuatro meses antes de su ingreso, que presento leptospirosis que debutó con dolor abdominal simulando un abdomen agudo que motivó realización de laparoscopia exploratoria. La serología para leptospira fue positiva y el paciente recibió tratamiento antibiótico específico con evolución favorable.

Leptospirosis is a disease of worldwide that is considered within zoonoses. It is important to know the environment where the patient performs its activities. The clinical presentation goes from a mild infection to its more complicated presentation, the Weil´s Syndrome (disseminated affectation), which is related to high mortality rates if not detected in time. Its probability diagnosis is established based on clinical criteria (signs and symptoms of suspicion), plus the epidemiological link, which can be corroborated with the results of complementary studies (immunological markers). This is essential for the adequate treatment and selection of the antibiotic scheme. The following is a case of a 25-years-old woman with a personal history of SARS-Co V-2 infection (RT-PCR positive) four months before admission, who presented Leptospirosis that debuted with abdominal pain simulating an acute abdomen that required exploratory laparoscopy. Serology for Leptospira was positive and the patient received specific antibiotic treatment with favorable evolution

Seroprevalence of human leptospirosis in a rural community from Tandil, Argentina. Assessment of risk factors and spatial analysis / Seroprevalencia de leptospirosis humana en una comunidad rural del partido de Tandil (Argentina). Identificación de los factores de riesgo y del análisis espacial

Abstract Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonosis that is widely distributed in the world. Although it is endemic in Argentina, prevalence remains unknown. The aims of the study were: (i) to determine the prevalence of leptospirosis in humans from a rural community in Tandil Argentina, (ii) to identify infecting Leptospira spp. serogroups, (iii) to identify factors associated with the infection, (iv) to estimate the population attributable fraction (PAF) of the risk factors and (v) to determine the spatial patterns of disease presentation and related risk factors. Blood samples from 202 participants were collected. A survey was conducted to obtain clinical and epidemiological data. Serological testing was performed by the microscopic agglutination test (MAT). Univariate and multivariate methods were applied to evaluate associations. Spatial clusters were investigated for seroprevalence and risk factors. Antibodies were found in 32.2% of participants (95% CI: 25.8-39.1). The most prevalent serogroup was Hebdomadis followed by Sejroe; Icterohaemorrhagiae; Tarassovi and Canicola. Living at lower altitudes (OR: 13.04; 95% CI: 2.60-65.32); not having access to water supply network (OR: 2.95; 95% CI: 1.30-6.69); living close to flooded streets (OR: 2.94; 95% CI: 1.14-7.69) and practicing water sports (OR: 3.12; 95% CI: 1.12-8.33) were associated with seropositivity. Factors related with housing characteristics, services and infrastructure had the higher PAF (from 17% to 81%). A spatial cluster with higher rates of positivity and of the main risk factors was determined. This work contributes useful data for specific preventive measures that should be implemented for the control of the disease.

Resumen La leptospirosis es una enfermedad desatendida, ampliamente distribuida a nivel mundial. Aunque es endémica en Argentina, su prevalencia es desconocida. Los objetivos de este estudio fueron los siguientes: (i) determinar la prevalencia de leptospirosis humana en comunidades rurales del partido de Tandil (Argentina), (ii) identificar serogrupos infectantes de Leptospira spp., (iii) identificar factores de riesgo asociados, (iv) estimar la fracción atribuible poblacional (FAP) de los factores de riesgo y (v) determinar los patrones espaciales de la enfermedad y de los factores de riesgo. Se tomaron muestras de sangre a 202 personas, y se registró información clínica y epidemiológica. El diagnóstico se realizó por microaglutinación (MAT). Para evaluar asociaciones, se utilizaron métodos univariados y multivariados. Se estudiaron clusters espaciales de la seroprevalencia y de los factores de riesgo. El 32,2% de los participantes (IC 95%: 25,8-39,1) presentaron anticuerpos. Los serogrupos más prevalentes fueron Hebdomadis, Sejroe, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Tarassovi y Canicola. Vivir a menores altitudes (OR: 13,04; IC 95%: 2,60-65,32) y cerca de calles inundables (OR: 2,94; IC 95%: 1,14-7,69), la falta de acceso a agua de red (OR: 2,95; IC 95%: 1,30-6,69) y la práctica de deportes acuáticos (OR: 3,12; IC 95%: 1,12-8,33) estuvieron asociados con la seropositividad. Factores relacionados con las características de las viviendas, los servicios y la infraestructura tuvieron mayor proporción de FAP (17 al 81%). Se encontró un área de mayor riesgo de presentación de individuos seropositivos y de los principales factores de riesgo. Este trabajo provee información útil para generar medidas preventivas específicas que podrían ser aplicadas para controlar esta enfermedad.

LEPTOSPIROSIS: A NEGLECTED DISEASE FROM NORTH INDIA

Introduction: Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Leptospira interrogans and has been reported from various countries worldwide. As very few studies were conducted on leptospirosis from north India, this study was conducted to know the status of this disease in this region. This retrospective hospital Material & Methods: based study was conducted in the Department of Microbiology of a tertiary care super specialty teaching institute from north India for a period of two consecutive years. Blood specimens from acute febrile illness cases were tested for presence of IgM antibodies against Leptospira interrogans by rapid card (Leptocheck from TULIP) testing and ELISA (Leptospira IgM ELISA from PanBio). Out of total 216 samples Results: collected and included in this study, 40 were found to be positive for presence of IgM antibodies against Leptospira interrogans. Seropositivity for leptospirosis was observed to be 19%. Maximum number of patients were from economically productive age groups, 31-40 years of age group followed by 21-30 and 41-50 years of age groups. CONCLUSION: Leptospirosis was found to be a major cause of acute febrile illness from north India. It is neglected and under reported from most of the regions of India due to lack of clinician's suspicion. More studies with more samples are required on leptospirosis from this region to reach on final conclusion.

Leptospirosis during the COVID-19 pandemic: a case report

ABSTRACT Since SARS-CoV-2 disease (COVID-19) has been labeled as a pandemic, it took the spotlight in the differential diagnosis for patients presenting with acute respiratory and systemic symptoms. Leptospirosis is one of the most common zoonoses in the world, yet it is mainly a disease of differential diagnosis for places that do not have it as an endemic. Due to the high burden of COVID-19 on the healthcare field, patients suffering from other infections may have been inadvertently neglected. COVID-19 infection can mimic other infectious diseases and can confuse physicians in their search for a confirmatory diagnosis. Nonetheless, it is very crucial to broaden the differential diagnosis and keep diseases like leptospirosis within the differential diagnosis despite its rarity, especially in patients presenting with unexplained systemic infectious symptoms. This is a unique case of a patient who presented with dyspnea, jaundice and change in urine color who was suspected to be COVID-19 positive. After a detailed investigation, the patient was diagnosed with leptospirosis instead of COVID-19 and was treated with plasmapheresis and antibiotics accordingly.

Kidney Injury Biomarkers in Leptospirosis

ABSTRACT Leptospirosis is a zoonotic infection with a global distribution, though it has a greater impact on marginalized rural agricultural and urban communities in developing countries. Kidney injury, which can lead to severe and lethal infections, is the most frequent complication associated with leptospirosis. Novel biomarkers are being studied as tools for assessing kidney injury in different pathological processes to improve early detection. This review aimed to gather information on the use of novel kidney biomarkers for human leptospirosis. A search of the literature was carried out in September 2021 using the parameters "((kidney) OR (renal) OR (chronic kidney disease) OR (acute kidney injury)) AND ((biomarker) OR (marker)) AND ((Leptospira) OR (leptospirosis))". The review identified 11 original studies that evaluated the performance of 15 kidney biomarkers related to leptospirosis. Assessment of the evidence for biomarker utility was limited because of the small number of studies and sample sizes. Although some biomarkers were associated with kidney disease, no specific biomarker appeared to be ready for clinical practice, and more research in this field is necessary.

Leptospira interrogans insoluble fraction as a potential antigen source for lateral flow immunochromatography

BACKGROUND Leptospirosis is an emerging zoonosis that affects humans and animals. Immunochromatography rapid test is widely used for early diagnosis of leptospirosis, but with low sensitivity and specificity. OBJECTIVES To evaluate Leptospira interrogans insoluble fraction as a potential antigen source for lateral flow immunochromatography. METHODS Insoluble fraction derived from the crude bacterial extract was obtained by serial centrifugation. The polypeptide profile was determined using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Immune reactivity of this fraction was assessed by Western Blotting and lateral flow immunochromatography (LFI). It was tested 160 microagglutination test (MAT)-positive sera from patients in the acute phase, 100 MAT-negative sera from patients with acute febrile illness, and 45 patients with other infectious diseases. FINDINGS There was a predominance of low molecular mass-polypeptide bands, ranging from 2 to 37 kDa. The antibody reactivity of theses polypeptides was found to range from 13-50%, especially between 10 and 38 kDa. Among MAT-positive sera of patients with leptospirosis in the acute phase, 97% were also positive in LFI, indicating high sensitivity. Among MAT-negative sera, all were negative in LFI, indicating high specificity. Only 2% of cross-reactivity was detected. CONCLUSION The insoluble fraction can be a valuable antigen source for development of point-of-care diagnosis test for leptospirosis.

Associação entre determinantes em saúde e ocorrência de casos humanos de leptospirose em Minas Gerais: um estudo ecológico 2010-2019 / Association between health determinants and the occurrence of human cases of leptospirosis in Minas Gerais: an ecological study 2010-2019

Introdução: A leptospirose é considerada um problema de saúde pública com grande impacto social e econômico. A doença foi citada como duplamente omissa, uma vez já classificada na literatura internacional como doença tropical negligenciada (DTN), ainda conta com a baixa atenção governamental. Tal fato, pode estar associado ao adoecimento por essa enfermidade atingir majoritariamente a porção pobre e marginalizada da sociedade. Objetivos: O presente estudo objetiva avaliar a associação entre determinantes em saúde e adoecimento por leptospirose nos municípios do estado de Minas Gerais no período de 2010 a 2019. Metodologia: Trata-se de um estudo ecológico, no qual as unidades de análise foram os 853 municípios do estado de Minas Gerais. Foram utilizados dados secundários agregados não nominais entre os anos de 2010 e 2019. Foi utilizado o Modelo Binomial Negativo com Inflação de Zeros como técnica de análise multivariada, considerando a incidência por leptospirose em 2016 como desfecho e os indicadores do Índice Mineiro de Responsabilidade Social de 2016 ou em data mais próxima disponível como variáveis explicativas Resultados: Os resultados do modelo múltiplo demonstraram que os fatores que permaneceram associados à incidência de leptospirose foram os índices de Saúde, Educação, Renda e Emprego e a variável Infraestrutura Urbana. Segundo os coeficientes estimados, o índice de saúde do IMRS foi associado a um aumento da incidência de leptospirose. Por outro lado, os demais fatores ­ índice de educação, renda e emprego e a variável infraestrutura urbana ­ estiveram associados a menores taxas da doença, agindo assim, como fatores de proteção ao adoecimento. Conclusão: Há uma forte associação da leptospirose com a pobreza no estado de Minas Gerais. O investimento em infraestrutura urbana e garantia de condições sanitárias favoráveis para a população, bem como melhora da propagação de informação e educação reduziria o impacto da doença na população pobre e desassistida.

Introduction: Leptospirosis is considered a public health problem with great social and economic impact. The disease was cited as doubly omitted, since it is already classified in the international literature as a neglected tropical disease (NTD), it still has low government attention. This fact may be associated with the illness caused by this disease, which mostly affects the poor and marginalized portion of society. Objectives: This study aims to evaluate the association between health determinants and the illness from leptospirosis in the municipalities of the state of Minas Gerais from 2010 to 2019. Methodology: This is an ecological study and the units of analysis were the 853 municipalities in the state of Minas Gerais. Non-nominal aggregated secondary data between the years 2010 and 2019 were used. The Negative Binomial Model with Zero Inflation was used as a multivariate analysis technique, considering the incidence of leptospirosis in 2016 as the outcome and the IMRS indicators of 2016 or on a date closest available as explanatory variables Results: The results of the multiple model showed that the factors that remained associated with the incidence of leptospirosis were the Health, Education, Income and Employment indexes and the Urban Infrastructure variable. According to the estimated coefficients, the IMRS health index was associated with an increased incidence of leptospirosis. On the other hand, the other factors ­ education, income and employment index and the urban infrastructure variable ­ were associated with lower rates of the disease, thus acting as protective factors against illness. Conclusion: There is a strong association between leptospirosis and poverty in the state of Minas Gerais. Investment in urban infrastructure and guaranteeing favorable sanitary conditions for the population, as well as improving the dissemination of information and education would reduce the impact of the disease on the poor and underserved population. Descriptors: Social Determinants of Health; Zoonosis Surveillance; Leptospirosis, Social Vulnerability, Ecological Studies.

First report of human infection with Leptospira interrogans serovar Bratislava in the Eastern Black Sea region of Turkey

ABSTRACT Leptospirosis is one of the most common zoonotic bacterial infections worldwide. It is an infection that usually affects people with low socioeconomic status, with morbidity and mortality risk. The clinical course of the disease may range from mild, featuring nonspecific clinical signs and symptoms, to severe, resulting in death. The respective studies conducted in Turkey indicate that leptospirosis seropositivity in animals and humans is higher in coastal and rural areas. Turkey's Eastern Black Sea Region has a humid climate with heavy rainfalls and a large population of mice and other rodents. However, a Leptospira interrogans serovar Bratislava case is yet to be reported in this region. This article reports the case of a 38-year-old patient who presented fever and acute renal failure and was diagnosed with Leptospira interrogans serovar Bratislava after hospitalization.

Prevalence of human leptospirosis in the Americas: a systematic review and meta-analysis / Prevalencia de la leptospirosis humana en las Américas: revisión sistemática y metanálisis / Prevalência da leptospirose humana nas Américas: revisão sistemática e metanálise

ABSTRACT Objective. To describe the prevalence of leptospirosis in the Americas. Methods. A systematic review and meta-analysis, in the period 1930 to 2017, performed on a search of six platforms: PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Lilacs, Embase, and Cochrane. Results. The search found 77 publications of which 53 (68%) were from the period 2000-2017. Of the 77, 62 studies were included in the analysis, from North America (11, 17%), Central America (9, 14%), and South America (42, 67%), and 22 studies were from urban areas. Leptospirosis prevalence in the 62 studies analyzed corresponded to 28% (95% CI [23, 32]). Countries with higher prevalence were United States of America (41%), Colombia (29%), and Brazil (21%). The most frequent serovars found were Icterohaemorrhagiae (43 of 77 publications, 55%), Canicola (35, 45%), Pomona (28, 36%), and Grippotyphosa (26, 33%). Conclusions. There is variability of Leptospira species and serovars with heterogenous distribution throughout the Americas, with high prevalence in some countries, highlighting the need for action to control the disease.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Describir la prevalencia de la leptospirosis en las Américas. Métodos. Revisión sistemática y metanálisis correspondientes al período 1930-2017, mediante una búsqueda en seis plataformas: PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Lilacs, Embase y Cochrane. Resultados. En la búsqueda se encontraron 77 publicaciones, de las que 53 (68%) eran del periodo 2000-2017. En el análisis se incluyeron 62 de los 77 estudios, correspondientes a América del Norte (11, 17%), Centroamérica (9, 14%) y América del Sur (42, 67%), y 22 estudios correspondientes a zonas urbanas. La prevalencia de la leptospirosis en los 62 estudios analizados fue del 28% (IC del 95% [23, 32]). Los países con mayor prevalencia fueron Estados Unidos de América (41%), Colombia (29%) y Brasil (21%). Las serovariedades más frecuentes fueron icterohaemorrhagiae (43 de 77 publicaciones, 55%), canicola (35, 45%), pomona (28, 36%) y grippotyphosa (26, 33%). Conclusiones. Se observa variabilidad de especies y serovariedades de Leptospira, con una distribución heterogénea en las Américas y una elevada prevalencia en algunos países, lo que pone de manifiesto la necesidad de adoptar medidas para controlar la enfermedad.

RESUMO Objetivo. Descrever a prevalência da leptospirose nas Américas. Métodos. Uma revisão sistemática e metanálise referente ao período de 1930 a 2017, realizada por meio de busca em seis plataformas: PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Lilacs, Embase e Cochrane. Resultados. A pesquisa encontrou 77 publicações, das quais 53 (68%) eram do período de 2000 a 2017. Dos 77 estudos, 62 foram incluídos na análise, da América do Norte (11, equivalente a 17%), América Central (9, equivalente a 14%) e América do Sul (42, equivalente a 67%), e 22 estudos foram realizados em áreas urbanas. A prevalência da leptospirose nos 62 estudos analisados correspondeu a 28% (IC 95% [23, 32]). Os países com maior prevalência foram os Estados Unidos da América (41%), a Colômbia (29%) e o Brasil (21%). Os sorovares mais frequentes encontrados foram Icterohaemorrhagiae (43 de 77 publicações, equivalente a 55%), Canicola (35, equivalente a 45%), Pomona (28, equivalente a 36%) e Grippotyphosa (26, equivalente a 33%). Conclusões. Há variabilidade nas espécies e sorovares de Leptospira, que têm distribuição heterogênea nas Américas e alta prevalência em alguns países, o que destaca a necessidade de ações para controlar a doença.

Coinfección por hepatitis a y leptospirosis en un adulto con enfermedad febril aguda e ictericia / Co-infection with hepatitis a and leptospirosis in an adult with jaundice and acute febrile illness

Introducción: la infección por hepatitis A y leptospirosis son causas frecuentes de síndrome febril ictérico en Colombia, caracterizado por fiebre, ictericia y hallazgos compatibles con hepatitis aguda. La transmisión de la hepatitis tipo A es vía fecal-oral mientras la otra es producto del contacto con ciertos animales. El tratamiento de la hepatitis A se centra en medidas de soporte en tanto que el de la leptospira se basa en el pronto inicio de terapia antibiótica. Es rara la coinfección de las dos entidades. Presentación del caso: paciente que acudió al servicio de urgencias con hallazgos clínicos y paraclínicos compatibles con infección aguda por hepatitis A, quien tras una evolución tórpida y la búsqueda activa de otras causas permitieron encontrar coinfección con leptospirosis. Discusión y conclusiones: se analizan temas en cuestión y se revisa la literatura. Se discuten los escasos informes encontrados al respecto, destacando este reporte por su aporte estadístico a la cifra mundial y la importancia de considerar en el servicio de urgencias este diagnóstico cuando acude un paciente con enfermedad febril aguda mayor de siete días, con el propósito de reducir costos en el sistema de salud y mejorar el pronóstico de los pacientes.

Introduction: coinfection with hepatitis A and leptospirosis is a frequent cause of febrile jaundice syndrome in Colombia, characterized by fever, jaundice and findings compatible with acute hepatitis. Transmission of hepatitis A is by fecal-oral route while leptospirosis results from exposure to certain animals. Treatment of hepatitis A focuses on supportive measures while that of leptospirosis is based on prompt initiation of antibiotic therapy. Co-infection with the two entities is rare. Case presentation: patient who attended the emergency department with clinical and laboratory findings compatible with acute hepatitis A. After a torpid progression, an active search for other causes allowed finding a co-infection with leptospirosis. Discussion and conclusions: the abovementioned conditions were analyzed and a literature review was conducted. The few reports on this subject were discussed, highlighting this report for its contribution to global statistics and the importance of considering this diagnosis in the ER in a patient with a history of fever persisting for more than seven days, in order to reduce healthcare costs and to improve prognosis of patients.

Contribución de la teoría entorno saludable de Florence Nightingale en la prevención de la leptospirosis

Introducción: La leptospirosis está reconocida como una de las enfermedades transmisibles de carácter reemergente, pues continúa siendo la zoonosis de más amplia distribución a nivel mundial, por lo que la prevención de los factores de riesgo es esencial para las mismas. Objetivo: Analizar la contribución de la teoría entorno saludable de Florence Nightingale en la prevención de la leptospirosis con participación comunitaria. Métodos: Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica con el método de análisis bibliográfico a través de una búsqueda realizada entre los años 2015 al 2021, donde se consultaron bases de datos especializadas y se seleccionaron 30 publicaciones científicas sobre el tema. Resultados: La génesis de la Enfermería profesional se reconoce con la visión y los estudios de Florence Nightingale, la que en su teoría acredita que para favorecer un ambiente adecuado es necesaria la intervención de las enfermeras. El entorno incluye las condiciones y fuerzas externas que afectan a la vida, que pueden prevenir la enfermedad o ayudar a suprimirla. Su trabajo teórico sobre los cinco elementos esenciales de un entorno saludable: aire puro, agua potable, eliminación de aguas residuales, higiene ambiental y luz se consideran tan indispensables en la actualidad como hace siglos atrás. Las contribuciones ofrecidas, tienen influencia en el desempeño profesional de la enfermería moderna, de manera particular en la prevención de la leptospirosis con participación comunitaria. Conclusiones: La teoría entorno saludable de Nightingale, reafirma la necesidad de mantener y controlar un entorno saludable. Los supuestos y afirmaciones teóricas contribuyen a orientar la práctica hacia el proceso de prevención de la leptospirosis con participación comunitaria, desde el accionar de los profesionales de enfermería. Al combinar los recursos individuales, sociales y profesionales.

Introduction: Leptospirosis is recognized as one of the re-emergim transmissible diseases, as it continues to be the zoonosis with the widest distribution worldwide, so the prevention of risk factors is essential. Objective: To analyze the contribution of Florence Nightingales' theory in the prevention of leptospirosis with community participation. Methods: A bibliographic review was carried out with the bibliographic analysis method through a search carried out between the years 2015 to 2021, where specialized databases were consulted and 30 scientific publications on the subject were selected. Results: The genesis of professional Nursing is recognized with the vision and studies of Florence Nigthingale, which in her theory accredits that the intervention of nurses is necessary to promote an adequate environment. The environment includes the conditions and external forces that affect life, which can prevent disease or help suppress it. Her theoretical work on the five essential elements of a healthy environment: clean air, drinking water, wastewater disposal, environmental hygiene, and light are considered as indispensable today as they were centuries ago. The contributions offered have an influence on the professional performance of modern nursing, particularly in the prevention of leptospirosis with community participation. Conclusions: Nightingales theory reaffirms the need to maintain and control a healthy environment. The assumptions and theoretical affirmations contribute to guide the practice towards the process of prevention of leptospirosis with community participation, from the actions of the nursing professionals. By combining individual, social and professional resources.