Julgamentos metacognitivos e o desempenho de idosos em tarefas de memória / Metacognitive judgments and the performance of the elderly in memory tasks / Juicios metacognitivos y el desempeño de los ancianos en tareas de memoria

O estudo objetivou investigar o monitoramento metacognitivo de idosos por meio da análise de relações entre o desempenho estimado por eles e seus reais desempenhos em tarefas de memória de curto prazo. Participaram 30 idosos não acamados, sem sinais relatados de demência ou indicados por meio do Miniexame do Estado Mental, de ambos os sexos, com idade entre 65 e 90 anos, além de uma pessoa próxima a cada um deles, totalizando 60 participantes. O contato com a amostra foi realizado por meio da estratégia de Snowball Sampling Aproach. Os materiais apresentados aos participantes idosos foram o Miniexame do Estado Mental, os subtestes Aritmética, Dígitos e Sequência de Números e Letras do WAIS III, e o Registro de Julgamentos Metacognitivos. Para os participantes que eram figuras próximas de cada idoso foi apresentado o Questionário para Informantes Múltiplos sobre o Desempenho de Idosos em Tarefas de Memória. Os resultados dos subtestes Aritmética, Dígitos e Sequência de Números e Letras do WAIS III foram correlacionados aos julgamentos dos idosos e das pessoas próximas quanto ao desempenho dos idosos nos subtestes. Foram encontradas correlações fortes e significativas entre os julgamentos e o desempenho real para os três subtestes e correlações moderadas e significativas entre julgamentos de pessoas próximas e o desempenho real dos idosos nos subtestes. Os resultados indicaram que idosos sem sinais de prejuízo cognitivo e seus cuidadores/familiares podem julgar adequadamente os desempenhos em tarefas de memória

The study aimed to investigate the metacognitive monitoring of elderly people by analyzing the relationships between their estimated performance and their actual performance in short-term memory tasks. Thirty elderly individuals who were not bedridden, with no reported signs of dementia or indicated through the Mini Mental State Examination, of both genders, aged between 65 and 90 years, in addition to a person close to each of them participated, totaling 60 participants. Contact with the sample was performed using the Snowball Sam-pling Aproach strategy. The materials presented to the elderly participants were the Mini Mental State Examination, the WAIS III Arithmetic, Digits and Sequence of Numbers and Letters subtests, the Metacognitive Judgments Registry. For participants who were figures close to each elderly person, the Questionnaire for Multiple Informers on the Performance of Elderly Persons in Memory Tasks was presented. The results of the WAIS III Arithmetic, Digits and Sequence of Numbers and Letters subtests were correlated to the judgments of the elderly and those close to them regarding the performance of the elderly in the subtests. Strong and significant correlations were found between judgments and actual performance for the three subtests and moderate and significant correlations were found between judgments of close people and the actual performance of the elderly in the subtests. The results indicated that the elderly, caregivers/family members can properly judge performance in memory tasks

El estudio tuvo como objetivo investigar el seguimiento metacognitivo de las personas mayores mediante el análisis de las relaciones entre su rendimiento estimado y su rendimiento real en tareas de memória a corto plazo. Participaron 30 ancianos que nos se encontraban postrados en cama, sin signos reportados de demencia o índicados a través del Mini Examen del Estado Mental, de ambos sexos, con edades entre 65 y 90 años, además de una persona cercana a cada uno de ellos, totalizando 60 participantes. El contacto con la muestra se realizó mediante la estrategia Snowball Sampling Aproach. Los materiales presentados a los participantes mayores fueron el Mini Examen del Estado Mental, las subpruebas de Aritmética, Dígitos y Secuencia de Números y Letras WAIS III, el Registro de Juicios Metacognitivos. Para los participantes que eran figuras cercanas a cada anciano, se presentó el Cuestionario para Informantes Múltiples sobre el Desempeño de las Personas Mayores en Tareas de Memória. Los resultados de las subpruebas de Aritmética, Dígitos y Secuencia de Números y Letras WAIS III se correlacionaron con los juicios de los ancianos y sus allegados sobre el desempeño de los ancianos en las subpruebas. Se encontraron correlaciones fuertes y significativas entre los juicios y el desempeño real para las tres subpruebas y se encontraron correlaciones moderadas y significativas entre los juicios de personas cercanas y el desempeño real de los ancianos en las subpruebas. Los resultados indicaron que los ancianos, los cuidadores / miembros de la familia pueden juzgar adecuadamente el desempeño en las tareas de memória

Metacognição no transtorno bipolar: uma revisão sistemática / Metacognition in bipolar disorder: a systematic review

OBJETIVO: Realizar uma revisão sistemática investigando a metacognição no transtorno bipolar (TB). Os objetivos secundários incluem explorar os correlatos clínicos e sociodemográficos da metacognição no TB e como a metacognição varia de acordo com o estado afetivo, estabelecer uma comparação com outros transtornos mentais e investigar se as intervenções metacognitivas no TB são eficazes ou não. MÉTODOS: Realizou-se uma revisão sistemática da literatura científica sobre a metacognição em pacientes com TB. Foram buscados estudos clínicos originais sobre o tema nas bases de dados Medline, ISI, PsycINFO e SciELO. Os termos de busca empregados foram: "metacognition" OR "metacognitive" OR "metamemory" AND "bipolar" OR "mania" OR "manic". RESULTADOS: Foram selecionados nove artigos. A metacognição parece estar mais prejudicada no TB do que em controles e menos prejudicada do que na esquizofrenia. Por sua vez, parece não haver diferença entre bipolares e deprimidos unipolares quanto à capacidade metacognitiva. Maior nível educacional e maior duração da doença parecem estar associados a uma melhor capacidade metacognitiva, enquanto a maior gravidade dos sintomas de TB está associada a uma pior metacognição. O treinamento metacognitivo em pacientes com TB é uma perspectiva clínica promissora. CONCLUSÃO: Os estudos sobre metacognição no TB são escassos, mas a literatura existente indica possíveis fatores clínicos e sociodemográficos associados a pior metacognição no transtorno, sugerindo também que intervenções terapêuticas metacognitivas podem ser clinicamente relevantes para o manejo do TB.

OBJECTIVE: To perform a systematic review investigating metacognition in bipolar disorder (BD). Secondary objectives include exploring clinical and sociodemographic correlates of metacognition in BD, how metacognition varies according to affective state, establishing a comparison with other mental disorders, and investigating whether metacognitive interventions in BD are effective or not. METHODS: A systematic review of the scientific literature on metacognition in BD patients was carried out. Original clinical studies on the subject were searched in the Medline, ISI, PsycINFO and SciELO databases. The search terms included were: "metacognition" OR "metacognitive" OR "metamemory" AND "bipolar" OR "mania" OR "manic". RESULTS: A total of nine articles were selected. Metacognition appears to be more impaired in BD than in controls, but less impaired than in schizophrenia. There seems to be no difference between bipolar and unipolar depression regarding metacognitive capacity. Higher educational level and longer duration of illness seem to be associated with better metacognitive capacity, while higher severity of BD symptoms is linked to worse metacognition. Metacognitive training in BD patients is a promising clinical perspective. CONCLUSION: Studies on metacognition in BD are scarce, but the existing literature indicates potential clinical and sociodemographic factors associated with poorer metacognition in the disorder, also suggesting that metacognitive therapeutic interventions may be clinically relevant for the management of BD.

Metamemory monitoring in Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review / Monitoramento da metamemória na doença de Alzheimer: uma revisão sistemática

ABSTRACT Metamemory is the awareness of one's own knowledge and control of memory, and refers to the online ability to gather information about the current state of the memory system. Objective: Metamemory is one's own knowledge and control of memory. A systematic review was performed to identify the types of tasks used for evaluating metamemory monitoring, the stimuli used in these tasks, their limitations and the outcomes in people with Alzheimer's disease (PwAD). Methods: This systematic review followed PRISMA methodology. A search of Pubmed, Scopus and Web of Science electronic databases was carried out in September, 2018, identifying experimental investigations of metamemory and dementia. Results: We included 21 studies. The most common tasks used were judgement of learning, feeling of knowing, judgement of confidence and global prediction. The rates of discrepancy between PwAD and caregivers still need further research. The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test was the most used list of words. PwAD are able to accurately rate their memory functioning and performance, when the evaluation is done soon afterwards. PwAD tend to overestimate their functioning and performance when the judgement involves forward-looking vision. Conclusion: In the context of metamemory impairment, clinicians and caregivers should seek interventions aiming to identify compensatory styles of functioning. This systematic review provides initial evidence for the use of metamemory measures as part of broader assessments evaluating Alzheimer's disease.

RESUMO Metamemoria é a consciência do próprio conhecimento e controle da memória, e refere-se à capacidade online de reunir informações sobre o estado atual do sistema de memória. Objetivo: Metamemória é a consciência sobre o próprio conhecimento e controle da memória. Nós conduzimos uma revisão sistemática para identificar os tipos de tarefa usadas para avaliar o monitoramento da metamemória, os estímulos usados nessas tarefas, suas limitações e resultados em pessoas com doenças de Alzheimer. Métodos: Esta revisão sistemática usou a metodologia PRISMA. Uma busca nas bases Pubmed, Scopus e Web of Science foi feita em Setembro de 2018. Foram identificados estudos experimentais em metamória e demência. Resultados: Foram incluídos 21 estudos que se enquadravam nos critérios de inclusão. As tarefas mais comuns foram "judgement of learning", "feeling of knowing", "judgement of confidence" and "global prediction". As discrepâncias, em termos de monitoramento de metamemória, ainda necessitam de pesquisas futuras. O Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test foi a lista de palavras mais usada. Pessoas com doença de Alzheimer são capazes de avaliar de forma acurada o seu funcionamento da memória, quando a avaliação é feita em um momento posterior. Eles tendem a superestimar seu funcionamento quando o julgamento é feito em uma visão de futuro. Conclusão: No contexto do comprometimento da metamemória, é necessário que clínicos e cuidadores procurem intervenções com o objetivo de identificar estilos compensatórios de funcionamento. Assim, esta revisão sistemática fornece evidências iniciais sobre o uso de medidas de metamemória como parte de avaliações mais amplas na doença de Alzheimer.

Metamemory and aging: Psychometric properties of the Brazilian version of the Multifactorial Memory Questionnaire for elderly / Metamemória e envelhecimento: propriedades psicométricas da versão brasileira do questionário multifatorial de memória para idosos

ABSTRACT Metamemory measures provide subjective memory information and are relevant to investigate memory ability in aging. However, there is a lack of metamemory instruments available in Brazil. Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Brazilian version of the Multifactorial Memory Questionnaire (MMQ), which evaluates different dimensions of subjective memory functioning, such as Feelings, Abilities and Strategies used in everyday life. Methods: The MMQ was translated into Portuguese and administered to 30 Brazilian elderly subjects. The participants underwent cognitive tests, mood scales and metamemory instruments. Results: Analyses revealed good internal consistency (Cronbach's a coefficient ranged from 0.75 to 0.89) and test-retest validity for each MMQ dimensions (positive correlations between two applications ranged from 0.75 to 0.8). Convergent validity evidence for the MMQ was confirmed by significant positive correlations (0.47 to 0.68) with dimensions of the Metamemory in Adulthood scale (MIA) (i.e., the Ability, Control, Self-efficacy and Strategy dimensions). Discriminant validity revealed no associations between the MMQ and cognitive performance, suggesting a weak metamemory-objective memory correspondence. Moreover, there was a negative correlation between MMQ-Ability subscale scores and mood symptoms (-0.63 for anxious symptoms, and -0.54 for depressive symptoms); and the Brazilian MMQ was comparable with MMQ translations to other languages. Conclusion: The Brazilian MMQ exhibits good psychometric properties and appears promising for clinical and research purposes. Additional studies are needed to further examine the psychometric properties of the Brazilian MMQ in a larger sample.

RESUMO Medidas de metamemória fornecem informações acerca da memória subjetiva e são relevantes para se compreender a habilidade de memória no envelhecimento. Todavia, há uma falta de instrumentos de metamemória disponíveis no Brasil. Objetivo: O presente trabalho teve como objetivo examinar as propriedades psicométricas da versão brasileira do Questionário Multifatorial de Memória (MMQ), que avalia diferentes aspectos da memória subjetiva, como Sentimentos, Habilidade e Estratégias usadas na vida diária. Métodos: O MMQ foi traduzido para o Português e administrado em 30 idosos brasileiros. Os participantes realizaram testes cognitivos, escalas de humor e questionários de metamemória. Resultados: Análises revelaram boa consistência interna (coeficiente a de Cronbach's variou de 0.75 a 0.89) e validade teste-reteste para cada dimensão do MMQ (correlações positivas entre as duas aplicações variou de 0.75 a 0.8). Validade convergente do MMQ foi identificada através de correlações positivas (0.47 a 0.68) com as dimensões do Metamemory In Adulthood Questionnaire (MIA) (i.e., Habilidade, Controle, Autoeficácia e Estratégia). Validade discriminante revelou ausência de associação entre MMQ e performance cognitiva, sugerindo uma fraca correspondência entre metamemória e memória objetiva. Além disto, observou-se uma correlação negativa entre os escores da subscala MMQ-Habilidade e sintomas do humor (-0.63 para sintomas ansiosos, e -0.54 para sintomas depressivos); e o MMQ Brasileiro se mostrou comparável a traduções do MMQ em outros idiomas. Conclusão: O MMQ Brasileiro apresenta boas propriedades psicométricas e parece ser promissor para o uso clínico e de pesquisa. Estudos adicionais são necessários para investigar caracteristicas psicométricas do MMQ Brasileiro em uma amostra maior.

Metamemory monitoring ability in patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective To investigate the memory monitoring ability in patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE) and explore the mechanism of the memory impairment.Methods The feeling of knowing (FOK) paradigm of episodic memory (EM) and semantic memory (SM) were established and subsequently administered in 31 patients with IGE (IGE group) and 30 healthy controls (HC group) participants who were matched in age,sex and educational level.Results Compared with HC group (feeling of knowing of episodic memory (FOK-EM) FOK accuracy (85.29± 16.84) ％;feeling of knowing of sematic memory (FOK-SM) recall (76.61± 18.66) ％),the FOK-EM FOK accuracy ((64.03± 22.10) ％) and FOK-SM recall ((53.27±26.91) ％) in IGE group were significantly decreased(t=-4.215,P＜0.01;t=-3.677,P＜0.01).The correct judgment and correct recognition of FOK-EM ((51.16±32.93) ％) and the false judgment and correct recognition ((21.07±24.38) ％) of FOK-EM in the IGE group were significantly different with the HC group (the correct judgment and correct recognition of FOK-EM:(79.34±27.26)％ and the false judgment and correct recognition of FOK-EM:(2.45±5.38) ％;t=-3.634,P＜0.01;t=4.149,P＜0.01).Most importantly,the false judgment and correct recognition of FOK-EM were correlated with the Digital Span Test,Vocabulary Fluency Test and the Stroop effect in IGE group (r=-0.309,P＜0.05;r=-0.355,P＜0.01;r=-0.354,P＜0.05;r=0.602,P＜0.01).Conclusion The results show that the IGE group made less accurate metamemory monitoring than the HC group by underestimating their memoU performance on FOK-EM,whereas the semantic metamemory monitoring is not impaired in IGE group.More importantly,the impairment of memory monitoring was correlated with the deficit of executive function,indicating that this mechanism can be an influential factor of memory disorder in IGE.It also indicates that the episodic and semantic metamemory monitoring depend on different neural networks.

A short version of the questionnaire of metamemory in adulthood (MIA) in portuguese

The aim of this study was to develop a short version of the Metamemory in Adulthood Questionnaire (MIA) in Brazilian Portuguese. The original MIA is an instrument in english composed by 108 items, divided into seven dimensions of metamemory (Strategy, Task, Capacity, Change, Anxiety, Achievement and Locus). Despite of being widely used, the extension of the instrument makes its application impractical in many contexts, reinforcing the need for a short version. A total of 472 participants answered the original full version of the MIA. First, Item Response Theory (IRT) analyses revealed that nine items of the instrument could be excluded due to poor infit and outfit values. After exploratory factor analyses, the 99 items left were judged by five experts that chose the most appropriate items following previously established criteria (factor loading, repetitiveness, bad writing, and temporal/cultural inadequacy). A 39-items version (MIAr) was obtained, with the same factorial structure of the original MIA. The MIAr demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency indexes, as well as evidences of convergent validity and validity based on the response process. The results revealed that the MIAr achieved good psychometric properties, serving as a more parsimonious and practical option for metamemory assessment. (AU)

Relationships between episodic memory performance prediction and sociodemographic variables among healthy older adults / Relações entre previsão de desempenho de memória episódica e variáveis sociodemográficas entre idosos saudáveis

Previous studies have suggested that performance prediction, an aspect of metamemory, may be associated with objective performance on memory tasks. Objective: The objective of the study was to describe memory prediction before performing an episodic memory task, in community-dwelling older adults, stratified by sex, age group and educational level.Additionally, the association between predicted and objective performance on a memory task was investigated. Methods: The study was based on data from 359 participants in the FIBRA study carried out at Ermelino Matarazzo, São Paulo. Memory prediction was assessed by posing the question: ?If someone showed you a sheet with drawings of 10 pictures to observe for 30seconds, how many pictures do you think you could remember without seeing the sheet??. Memory performance was assessed by the memorization of 10 black and white pictures from the Brief Cognitive Screening Battery (BCSB). Results: No differences were found between men and women, nor for age group and educational level, in memory performance prediction before carrying out the memory task. There was a modest association (rho=0.11, p=0.041) between memory prediction and performance in immediate memory. On multivariate linear regression analyses, memory performance prediction was moderately significantly associated with immediate memory (p=0.061). Conclusion: In this study, sociodemographic variables did not influence memory prediction, which was only modestly associated with immediate memory on the Brief Cognitive Screening Battery (BCSB).

Estudos prévios sugerem que a previsão de desempenho, um dos aspectos da metamemória, pode estar associada ao desempenho em tarefas de memória. Objetivo: Objetivou-se descrever a previsão de desempenho antes da realização de uma tarefa de memória episódica em idosos residentes na comunidade, divididos por sexo, faixas de idade e escolaridade.Adicionalmente, objetivou-se estudar a associação entre a previsão de desempenho com o desempenho objetivo em tarefa de memória. Métodos: Foram utilizados os dados de 359 idosos participantes do estudo FIBRA realizado em Ermelino Matarazzo, São Paulo. Foi utilizada uma questão referente à previsão de desempenho: ?Se alguém lhe mostrasse uma folha com desenhos de 10 figuras para observar por 30 segundos, quantas figuras o/a senhor/a acha que conseguiria se lembrar em seguida sem ver a folha??. O desempenho de memória foi avaliado pela memorização de 10 figuras em preto e branco da Bateria Breve de Rastreio Cognitivo (BBRC). Resultados: Não foram encontradas diferenças entre homens e mulheres, entre faixas etárias ou de escolaridade para a previsão de desempenho antes da realização de tarefa de memória. Houve associação modesta (rho=0,11, p=0,041) entre a previsão de desempenho e o desempenho em memória imediata. Na análise de regressão linear multivariada a previsão de desempenho associou-se de forma moderatemente significante com a memória imediata (p=0,061). Conclusão: Neste estudo observou-se que as variáveis sociodemográficas não influenciaram a previsão de desempenho que esteve associada de forma modesta com a memória imediata na Bateria Breve de Rastreio Cognitivo (BBRC).

Mnemotecnia y metamemoria en personas mayores / The Keyword Mnemonic Technique and Metamemory in Elders

En esta investigación, se pretendió averiguar la influencia de la mnemotecnia de la palabra clave en el recuerdo y en los juicios metamnemónicos: juicios de facilidad de aprendizaje (EOL), juicios de aprendizaje (JOL) y juicios de confianza (CL), tanto en una lista corta de 16 palabras latinas (Experimento 1) como en una lista larga de 32 palabras latinas (Experimento 2). Tanto en el Experimento 1 como en el Experimento 2 se efectuó un diseño experimental de dos grupos independientes. En el Experimento 1 participaron 88 mujeres, con una media de edad de 74.34 años. En el 2, participó un grupo de 84 mujeres, de una edad similar al anterior. En ambos experimentos se realizó una prueba t de Student para muestras independientes. En el Experimento 1, se encontró que el método de la palabra clave fue superior al método de repetición en el recuerdo y en los juicios de confianza en la respuesta (CL). En el Experimento 2, se halló que el método de la palabra clave fue significativamente superior al método de repetición en el recuerdo y en todos los juicios metamnemónicos estudiados. El método de la palabra clave fue más eficaz que el método de repetición.

This study consisted of two experiments designed to assess the efficacy of the keyword mnemonic technique on recall and the following mnemonic judgments: ease of learning (EOL), judgments of learning (JOL), and confidence level (CL) using a short word list i.e., 16 Latin words (Experiment 1), or a long word list, 32 Latin words (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1 an experimental design with two independent groups was performed, involving 88 women, mean age 74.34 years, a Student's t-test for independent groups was performed and the keyword method was found to be more efficacious than the rote learning method on recall and confidence level judgments (CL). In Experiment 2 an experimental design with two independent groups was performed, involving 84 women of similar age, a Student's t-test for independent groups was performed, and the keyword method was significantly more efficacious than the rote learning method on recall and all of the mnemonic judgments under study. The keyword method was more effective than the rote learning method.

Metamemória em idosos: comparação entre desempenhos reais e estimados / Metamemory in the elderly: comparison between actual and estimated performances

O estudo visou identificar relações entre o desempenho estimado e o real desempenho de idosos em tarefas que avaliam o fator de memória operacional, bem como verificar a semelhança das crenças de pessoas próximas aos idosos quanto ao desempenho demonstrado por eles em tais tarefas. Foram utilizados os subtestes Aritmética, Dígitos e Sequências de Números e Letras do WAISIII, apresentados aos idosos junto com uma folha com questões sobre a sua percepção de acerto ou não dos itens. Os participantes estimaram seus resultados acima do que realmente obtiveram, em todos os subtestes. O subteste Sequência de Números e Letras foi o que apresentou maior disparidade e o Dígitos Ordem Direta, a menor. Todas as correlações entre os resultados brutos dos subtestes e os desempenhos estimados pelos idosos foram significativas e acima de 0,77. Foi obtida uma correlação significativa de 0,51 entre o real desempenho dos idosos na somatória de pontos dos subtestes Aritmética, Dígitos e Sequência de Números e Letras e a estimativa de desempenho das pessoas próximas aos idosos.

The study aimed to identify relationships between the predicted performance and the actual performance of elderly people on tasks that assess working memory factor, as well as evaluating the similarity between their real performances with the beliefs of people close to the elderly concerning their performance on such tasks. The subtests Arithmetic, Digit Span and Sequence of Numbers and Letters from the WAISIII were used. Following each subtest was presented a sheet containing questions about the accuracy of the subtests applied. In all subtests elderly participants estimated results above what was actually obtained. The subtest Sequence of Numbers and Letters was the one that showed greater disparity, whereas the Digit Span subtest - Order Direct - was the lowest. All correlations between the raw scores of the subtests and performance estimated by the elderly were significant and above 0.77. It was obtained a significant correlation of 0.51 between the actual performance of the elderly in the total score of the subtests of Arithmetic, Digit Span and Sequence of Numbers and Letters and the performance estimated by the companions of them.

Propiedades psicométricas del cuestionario multidimensional de memoria en población chilena adulta / Psychometric properties of multifactorial memory questionnaire in chilean adult population

El estudio presenta los datos de confiabilidad, validez convergente, de contenido y validez factorial del multifactorial memory questionnaire [MMQ] en una muestra de 740 participantes correspondientes a población chilena normal, sin problemas de salud, en rangos de edad de 20 a 81 años. El MMQ posee 56 ítems tipo likert, correspondientes a tres dimensiones referidas a confianza en la memoria, capacidad y estrategias o ayudas usadas diariamente para recordar información. A partir del análisis realizado es posible afirmar que el instrumento presenta validez de contenido, validez factorial y confiabilidad de consistencia interna, similar a la reportada en su versión original. Se presenta además, la relación existente con sexo, edad, satisfacción vital y salud subjetiva. El MMQ es un instrumento adecuado para ser usado tanto en contextos clínicos como de investigación para evaluar metamemoria.

The current study presents data on the reliability, convergent, content and factorial validity of the multifactorial memory questionnaire [MMQ] in a Chilean sample of 740 normal and healthy participants aged 20 to 81 years. The MMQ is a 56-item likert scale questionnaire divided into three dimensions: memory contentment, ability, and everyday strategies or aids used to remember information. The analysis indicates that the instrument has content validity, factorial validity and internal reliability, similar to the data reported on the original study of the instrument. Data of the relationship with sex, age, life satisfaction and subjective health are also presented. The MMQ is a useful scale to evaluate metamemory in clinical and research settings.

Treino cognitivo baseado em metamemória e imagens mentais: avaliação de seguimento e de efeito de reforço / Cognitive training based onmetamemory and mental images: follow-up evaluation and booster training effects

In the second semester of 2008, 37 seniors participated in five cognitive training sessions based on creation of imagery and modification of self-efficacy for memory tasks. Objective: To carry out a follow-up evaluation after 18 months in order to detect possible maintenance of gains reported in the first post-test, namely, in measures of self-efficacy and episodic memory, and to evaluate the impact of a training booster, that is, test whether there are additional gains when training is offered for the second time to the same participants. Methods: 16 older adults agreed to participate in five training sessions for the second time. Participants were evaluated with the Mini Mental Status Examination - MMSE, the Geriatric Depression Scale - GDS, the Brief Cognitive Screening Battery - BCSB (naming and memorization of 10 pictures, animal category verbal fluency test, the Clock Drawing Test - CDT), the Story subtest from the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test - RBMT, the Memory Complaint Questionnaire - MAC-Q, and the Picture and Story domains from the Memory Self-Efficacy Questionnaire - MSEQ used to evaluate the effectiveness of the first intervention. Results: This study reports the maintenance of the effects generated by the original training conducted in 2008, and follow-up evaluations detected the presence of potential additional gains in some aspects of memory. Conclusions: Training boosters may help maintain cognitive stability in adulthood and old age.

No segundo semestre de 2008, 37 idosos participaram de treino cognitivo de cinco sessões baseado na criação de imagens mentais e na alteração da auto-eficácia para tarefas de memória. Objetivo: Realizar a avaliação de seguimento, após 18 meses, com o intuito de detectar possível manutenção dos ganhos documentados no primeiro pós teste, a saber, em medidas de auto-eficácia e memória episódica; e avaliar o impacto de reforço de treino cognitivo, isto é, avaliar se ocorrem ganhos adicionais quando o treino é oferecido pela segunda vez aos mesmos participantes. Métodos: 16 adultos mais velhos ou idosos aceitaram participar de cinco sessões de treino pela segunda vez. Os participantes foram avaliados com o Mini Exame do Estado Mental - MEEM, a Escala de Depressão Geriátrica - EDG, a Bateria Breve de Rastreio Cognitivo - BBRC (nomeação e memorização de 10 figuras, fluência verbal animais, Teste do Desenho do Relógio), o subteste História do Teste Comportamental de Memória de Rivermead - RBMT, o Questionário de Queixas de Memória - MAC-Q, os domínios Figura e História do Questionário de Auto-Eficácia para Memória - MSEQ, que foram utilizados na avaliação da eficácia da primeira intervenção. Resultados: O presente estudo documentou a manutenção dos efeitos gerados pelo treino original realizado em 2008, e possíveis ganhos adicionais em alguns aspectos da memória após a segunda intervenção. Conclusões: O reforço de treino cognitivo pode ajudar a manter a estabilidade do desempenho cognitivo na vida adulta e velhice.

Multistrategic Memory Training with the Metamemory Concept in Healthy Older Adults

OBJECTIVE: According to the increase of older people, the need for effective methods to maintain or improve cognitive functions in the elderly has increased. These cognitive enhancing methods may contribute to the prevention of elderly cognitive decline by aging and dementing illness as well. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of multistrategic memory training with the metamemory concept on cognitive functions in the normal health elderly in Korea. METHODS: The program used in this study was developed by psychiatrists and psychologists in accordance with Korean situations. We applied the training program to the community-dwelling elderly with subjective memory complaints. Twenty participants were randomly received the intervention with 20 non-treatment controls. This program consisted of 10 sessions and was administered once a week. We examined the effects of this memory training for verbal memory, visuospatial memory, working memory, and verbal fluency ability by repeated ANOVA. RESULTS: There were significant improvements in Word List Short-term Delayed Free and Cued Recall, Word list Long-term Delayed Free and Cued Recall and visuospatial recognition memory. Performance improvements in visuospatial span forwards and the Categorical Fluency Test were also significant. These improvements were still significant after adjusting for depression improvement exact categorical fluency. CONCLUSION: This study shows that multistrategic memory training with the metamemory concept may improve memory ability and other cognitive functions which are not trained and that these improvements may be achieved by pure cognitive training effects.

Effects of cognitive training based on metamemory and mental images / Efeitos do treino cognitivo baseado em metamemória e imagens mentais

There is scant research evidence regarding training effects among elderly with limited educational experience. Research indicating an association between metamemory and memory performance is based on samples of older adults with at least 12 years of education. Objectives: To test the efficacy of a cognitive training program based on the creation of mental images and changes in specific aspects of metamemory in individuals with 3 to 15 years of education (M=8.38, SD=4.24). Methods: 37 older adults participated in five training sessions (Training Group (TG)) and 32 control subjects completed only pre and post test assessments (Control Group (CG)) including the Mini Mental Status Examination (MMSE), the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), the Brief Cognitive Screening Battery (BCSB)(naming and memorization of 10 pictures, animal category verbal fluency test, the Clock Drawing Test (CDT)), the Story subtest from the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test (RBMT), the Memory Complaint Questionnaire (MAC-Q), and the Picture and Story domains from the Memory Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (MSEQ). Results: The TG showed significant improvement between pre and post tests on the delayed recall of the 10 pictures and in self-efficacy for the memorization of stories. These same changes were not found in the CG. Conclusions: Five-session cognitive training may lead to significant improvements in episodic memory and memory self-efficacy, an aspect of metamemory, in individuals with an average of 8 years of education.

Existem na literatura poucas evidências sobre os efeitos do treino cognitivo entre idosos com baixa escolaridade. Pesquisas que evidenciam a associação entre metamemória e o desempenho em tarefas de memória baseiam-se em amostras com idosos com 12 anos de escolaridade ou mais Objetivos: Testar a eficácia de um programa de treino cognitivo baseado na criação de imagens mentais e na alteração de aspectos da metamemória entre indivíduos entre 3 e 15 anos de escolaridade (M=8.38, SD=4.24). Métodos: 37 adultos maduros e idosos participaram de cinco sessões de treino (Grupo Treino (GT)) e 32 somente completaram as avaliações pré e pós-intervenção (Grupo Controle (GC)), com o Mini Exame do Estado Mental (MEEM), a Escala de Depressão Geriátrica (EDG), a Bateria Breve de Rastreio Cognitivo (BBRC) (nomeação e memorização de 10 figuras, fluência verbal animais, Teste do Desenho do Relógio), o subteste Estória do Teste Comportamental de Memória de Rivermead (RBMT), o Questionário de Queixas de Memória (MAC-Q), os domínios Figura e História do Questionário de Auto-Eficácia para Memória (MSEQ). Resultados: O GT apresentou ganho significativo entre o pré e o pós-teste no resgate tardio das 10 figuras e na auto-eficácia para a memorização de histórias. Estas alterações não foram encontradas no GC. Conclusões: O treino cognitivo de cinco sessões pode gerar melhora significativa em memória episódica e em auto-eficácia, um aspecto da metamemória, em indivíduos com 8 anos de escolaridade em média.

Memoria y metamemoria en adultos mayores: estado de la cuestión / Memory and metamemory in elderly people: state of the art

En este artículo se presenta una revisión de los estudios en memoria y metamemoria en adultos mayores. Se analizaron 47 reportes de investigación publicados entre 1995 y 2005. Sus resultados fueron reseñados y organizados en una matriz que permitió categorizar las variables abordadas en los estudios. En cada variable se encontraron estudios cuyos resultados perpetúan el estereotipo cultural negativo sobre el declive de la memoria asociada al proceso de envejecimiento; y en menor cantidad, investigaciones que evidencian un estereotipo positivo caracterizado por la estabilidad en el funcionamiento de la memoria hasta edades avanzadas. El balance plantea interrogantes acerca de la pertinencia del diseño metodológico y de los instrumentos utilizados para evaluar la memoria y la metamemoria en este grupo poblacional.

This paper shows a review of studies on memory and metamory in order adults. 47 research reports published between 1995 and 2005 were analyzed and organized in a matrix, which allowed to classify the variables tackled in the studies. For each variable, results show the perpetuation of the negative cultural stereotype about memory impairment associated with aging process and, in a smaller number, research results show a positive stereotype characterized by stability in memory functioning even at an old age. The balance leads to questions about the relevance of the methodology and questionnaires used to assess memory and metamory in such population sample.

Effects of a Memory Training Program Using Efficacy Sources on Memory Improvement in Elderly People / 간호학회지

This study was a quasi-experimental study to confirm the effects of a memory training program using efficacy sources. The purpose was to develop an effective memory training program for elderly people and to identify the effects of the memory training program. This study was carried out between February 24 and July 18, 1999 and the subjects of the study were 102 elderly people who were participants at a welfare institute in Seoul. The experimental group (51) and the control group (51) were assigned by means of participation order. The control group was matched to the experimental group and was selected considering age, sex, and religion. The experimental group participated in the memory training program. The memory training program was based on the literature of Fogler & Stern (1994), Wang & Lee (1990), Lee (1991) and Lee (1993). The memory training program was given twice a week for two weeks with each program lasting two hours. Task centered memory self-efficacy was measured using the Memory Self-Efficacy Scale developed by Berry & Dennehey (1989) and Meta Memory was measured by the MIA developed by Dixon et al. (1988) Memory performance was measured by the Data were analyzed by SPSS PC and the results are described below. 1. The experimental group which participated in the Memory Training Program showed higher task centered memory self-efficacy scores as compared to the control group (t=4.354, P=.0001). 2. The experimental group which participated in the Memory Training Program showed higher metamemory scores as compared to the control group (t=4.733, P=.0001). 3. The experimental group which participated in the Memory Training Program showed higher memory performance scores as compared to the control group (t=7.500, P=.0001). The memory performance involved an immediate word recall task, a delayed word recall task, a word recognition task, and the face recognition task. 4. In the experimental group, there was significant correlation between the task centered memory self-efficacy scores and the metamemory scores (r=.382, P=.006), but the correlation between the task centered memory self-efficacy scores and the memory performance scores and between the metamemory scores and the memory performance scores were not significant. The results showed that task centered memory self-efficacy, meta memory and memory performance improved following the Memory Training Program including the memory process, changes in memory with aging, and appropriate use of memory strategies. Memory Training Program is an effective nursing intervention for improving memory in elderly people and, also, in people with complaints of memory loss. word list developed by Cho Sung Won (1995) and the face recognition task (Face Recognition Task developed for this study).

The Effects of the Older Adults' Depression on Metamemory and Memory Performance / 성인간호학회지

The purpose of this study is to find out the effects of depression on older adults' metamemory and memory performances. The subjects of the study consisted of 103 older adults over the age of 60 who are living in Kangwon Province. Some data were collected by means of the interview method, using questionnaires for metamemory (MIA questionnaire by Hultsch, et al., 1988), and depression(GDS by Yesavage and Sheikl, 1986). Other data were collected by a testing method on the memory performance, such as the immediate word recall task, the delayed word recall task, the word recognition task(Elderly Verbal Learning Test by Kyung Mi Choi, 1998), and the face recognition task(Face Recognition Task tool developed by this study). The results of this study were as follows: 1) The average point of depressed older persons' metamemory is 3.2 on a 5 point scale and was significantly lower than nondepressed older persons' point of 3.6. Looking into each sub-concept of metamemory, depressed persons' points are higher in terms of task(4.1), but are lower in terms of change(2.3), locus(2.6), and strategy(2.9) in comparison with nondepressed persons' points. 2)Depressed older persons' memory performances are all significantly lower than nondepressed person's, especially in terms of face recognition task(t=7.26, p<.0082) and word recognition task(t=6.58, p<.01). 3) In both depressed and nondepressed persons, metamemory has a close correlation with all memory tasks. In particular, depressed older persons' correlation is higher across the board, especially in memory self-efficacy of metamemory(r=.36 - .49) in comparison with nondepressed persons. 4) According to the results of analysis on the relations between metamemory and memory performances of each memory task using canonical analysis, in the case of depressed older persons, strategy, locus, capability and task have high correlation with word recognition task and delayed word recall task. Also in the case of nondepressed persons, achievement, strategy, change and locus variable have high correlation with face recognition task and immediate word recall task. As mentioned above, depression variables have a negative effect on older persons' metamemory and memory performance. In conclusion, when we care for depressed older persons with less memory ability, we have to consider the outcomes of this study are relevant. In addition, it is necessary to develop nursing intervention in order to prevent memory loss and improve memory performance in depressed older persons.

The Effects of Personal Characteristics and Metamemory on the Older Adults' Memory Performance / 성인간호학회지

The purpose of this study is to find out the effects of personal characteristics and metamemory on the older adults' memory performances and the effects of some factors on metamemory. The subjects of the study consisted of 102 old adults over the age of 60 who are living in Kangwon Province. Based on contextual perspectives of the memory-aging theory and the previous foreign researches on memory, some data were collected by means of the interview method, using questionnaires for metamemory(MIA questionnaire by Dixon, et al., 1988), and depression(GDS by Yesavage and Sheikl, 1986). The other data were collected by the testing method on the memory performance such as the immeadiate word recall task, the delayed word recall task, the word recognition task(Elderly Verbal Learning Test by Kyung Mi Choi, 1998),and the face recognition task(Face Recognition Task tool developed by this study). The results of this study were as follows; 1. The level of metamemory is 3.4 points in the 5 point scale, the grades of the task and the achievement are relatively high and the grades of the change, the control, and the strategy are relatively low in the sub-concepts. 2. The significant variables to predict old adults' metamemory are depression level, age, sex, educational attainment and religious activity. 3. The strong variables to predict memory performances are memory knowledge, memory self-efficacy, age, religious activity. 4. The strategy, the achievement, the locus, and the change concept of the metamemory have high correlations with the immediate recall task, the delayed recall task, and the word recognition task. In conclusion, the enhancement strategies of metamemory and the support of social activities are independent fields for nursing intervention. Ultimately in this respect nurses' roles are very important in developing and performing some intervention programs for old adults' memory improvement, which have significant meanings in the field of nursing science.