Velocidad de procesamiento en escolares chilenos con y sin Trastorno por Déficit de Atención con Hiperactividad (TDAH) / Processing Speed in Chilean Schoolchildren With and Without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) / Velocidade de processamento em estudantes chilenos com e sem Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade (TDAH)

El TDAH es el trastorno del neurodesarrollo más diagnosticado en escolares. La evidencia indica que las funciones ejecutivas, como es el caso de la velocidad de procesamiento y la memoria de trabajo, están afectadas en estudiantes con TDAH, aunque no existe un acuerdo definitivo sobre su presencia sistemática en este trastorno. Esta investigación pretende determinar si la velocidad de procesamiento y la memoria de trabajo corresponden a variables cognitivas en el TDAH. Participaron 138 estudiantes de 10 a 17 años. Se determinó TDAH con la escala VADTRS; se evaluó velocidad de procesamiento con una tarea de rapidez grafomotora y memoria de trabajo con una tarea de dígitos. Se utilizó un diseño transversal, univariante e intersujeto para el análisis de los datos. El VADTRS detectó un grupo con TDAH (N = 97) y otro sin TDAH (N = 41). A ambos grupos se aplicaron tareas de velocidad de procesamiento y memoria de trabajo; los análisis permitieron detectar diferencias significativas en estas variables entre los grupos con y sin TDAH. El grupo con TDAH fue dividido según su presentación; no se detectaron diferencias significativas en velocidad de procesamiento; la memoria de trabajo mostró un rendimiento significativa- mente menor en las presentaciones de TDAH inatenta y combinada. La velocidad de procesamiento y la memoria de trabajo parecen distinguir entre sujetos con y sin TDAH, la velocidad de procesamiento no parece distinguir entre presentaciones y la memoria de trabajo aparece alterada en aquellas presentaciones en que el componente atencional es definitorio

ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed neurodevelopmental disorder in schoolchildren. Evidence indicates that executive functions, such as processing speed and working memory, are affected in students with ADHD, although there is no definitive agreement on their sys- tematic presence in this disorder. This research aims to determine whether processing speed and working memory correspond to cognitive variables in ADHD. A total of 138 students aged 10 to 17 years participated. ADHD was determined with the VADTRS scale; processing speed was assessed with a graphomotor speed task and working memory with a digit task. A cross-sectional, univariate, intersubject design was used for data analy- sis. The VADTRS detected one group with ADHD (N = 97) and one without ADHD (N = 41). Processing speed and working memory tasks were applied to both groups; analyses detected significant differences in these variables between the ADHD and non- ADHD groups. The ADHD group was divided according to presentation; no significant differences were detected in processing speed; working memory showed significantly lower performance in the inattentive and combined ADHD presentations. Processing speed and working memory appear to distinguish between subjects with and without ADHD, processing speed does not appear to distinguish between presentations, and working memory appears impaired in those presentations in which the attentional component is defining.

O TDAH é o distúrbio de desenvolvimento neurológico mais frequentemente diagnosticado em crianças em idade escolar. As provas indicam que as funções executivas, tais como a velocidade de processamento e a memória de trabalho, são afectadas nos estudantes com TDAH, embora não haja um acordo definitivo sobre a sua presença sistemática nesta doença. Esta investiga- ção visa determinar se a velocidade de processamento e a memória de trabalho correspondem a variáveis cognitivas na TDAH. Um total de 138 estudantes com idades compreendidas entre os 10 e os 17 anos participaram. A TDAH foi determinada com a escala VADTRS; a velocidade de processamento foi avaliada com uma tarefa de velocidade grafomotora e a memória de trabalho com uma tarefa de dígitos. Foi utilizado um desenho transversal, univariado e intersubjecto para análise de dados. O VADTRS detectou um grupo com ADHD (N = 97) e um grupo sem ADHD (N = 41). Ambos os grupos foram administrados com velocidade de processamento e tarefas de memória de trabalho; as análises detectaram diferenças significativas nestas variáveis entre os grupos com ADHD e sem ADHD. O grupo TDAH foi dividido de acordo com a apresentação; não foram detectadas diferenças significativas na velocidade de processamento; a memória de trabalho mostrou um desempenho significativamente inferior nas apresentações de TDAH desatenta e combinada. A velocidade de processamento e a memória de trabalho parecem distinguir entre assuntos com e sem TDAH; a velocidade de processamento não parece distinguir entre apresentações e memória de trabalho parece prejudicada nas apresentações em que a componente atencional está a definir

The clinical symptoms and neurocognitive impairment of first-episode deficit and nondeficit subtype of schizophrenia / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective:To ulteriorly explore the differences of psychotic symptoms and neurocognitive between patients with first-episode deficit subtype of schizophrenia (FDS) and patients with first-episode nondeficit subtype of schizophrenia (FNDS).Methods:From January 2021 to September 2021, a total of 88 first-episode treatment-naive schizophrenia were recruited from the Mental Health Center of West China Hospital and divided into FDS group( n=44) and FNDS group( n=44) according to the schedule for the deficit syndrome (SDS), and 44 healthy subjects were included as healthy control group (HC group, n=44). Positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) was used to assess psychotic symptoms of patients and Wechsler adult intelligence scale, trail making test and logic memory test were used to evaluate intelligence quotient and neurocognitive function of all subjects.SPSS 22.0 was used for statistical analysis, and independent samples t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to compare variables that met normal distribution, while the Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis H test were used to compare variables that did not meet normal distribution. Results:(1) There were significant differences in psychotic symptoms between the FDS group and the FNDS group.Compared with the FNDS group, the FDS group had higher total score of PANSS ((95.95±16.82) vs (88.39±16.29)), negative symptoms ((27.57±7.52) vs (16.57±5.76)) and anergastic reaction ((13.43±3.82) vs (7.00(5.00, 9.00)), and lower positive symptoms scores ((21.95±6.88) vs (25.41±6.07)), activation ((8.00(5.00, 9.00) vs (9.27±3.47)), depression ((5.50(4.00, 9.00) vs (8.00(6.00, 12.00)) and supplementary item ((13.60±4.17) vs (17.30±5.39))(all P<0.05). (2) There were differences in neurocognitive functions between FDS group and FNDS group, and which in FDS and FNDS group were worse than that in HC group.Spatial memory (block design test: (23.70±11.05) vs (31.72±11.49)) and information processing speed (digit symbol test: (38.38±15.85) vs (47.97±14.99)) of FDS group were significantly lower than those of FNDS group(both P<0.05). Intelligence quotient, information processing speed and spatial memory of FDS group and FNDS group were lower than those of HC group(all P<0.05). Conclusion:FDS patients has more severe negative symptoms and anergastic reaction, and exit worse information processing speed and spatial memory dysfunction than FNDS patients.This unique pattern of impairment suggests that information processing speed and spatial memory may be important classification indicators for differentiating the deficit subtype of schizophrenia in the early stage.

Mecanismos de desarrollo de la atención selectiva en población infantil / The development mechanisms of selective attention in child population

Resumen La atención selectiva es la función cognitiva que orienta la atención hacia los objetos o estímulos que resultan relevantes evitando la distracción frente a aquellos que son irrelevantes. En general, la literatura indica que el desempeño de la atención selectiva mejora notablemente con la edad, sin embargo, las diferencias vinculadas a esta variable no se cumplen para todas las condiciones de cantidad de estímulos distractores ni para todos los grupos de edad. Asimismo, aún no se ha explorado la contribución del control inhibitorio y la velocidad de procesamiento a esta mejora progresiva. Por este motivo, y debido a la escasez de estudios en población infantil, se propuso analizar la contribución relativa de la velocidad de procesamiento y de la inhibición al desempeño en una tarea de atención selectiva y búsqueda visual en esta etapa evolutiva. Para ello, se administró una tarea de búsqueda de conjunciones y una tarea simple de velocidad de respuesta a 295 niños de 6 a 13 años de edad. Los resultados permitieron plantear dos conclusiones principales: por un lado, que la atención selectiva mejora consistentemente durante la niñez y, por otro lado, que no existe un mecanismo general y exclusivo capaz de explicar estas diferencias durante esta etapa vital. Así, tanto la velocidad de procesamiento como el control inhibitorio contribuyen al desarrollo de la atención selectiva y ambos mecanismos cognitivos actúan de manera complementaria más que excluyente.

Abstract Selective attention allows directs attention to relevant objects or stimuli, while avoiding distraction from those that are irrelevant. The literature indicates that performance in CVS tasks improves markedly with age. However, age-related differences are not met neither for every number of distractor conditions nor for all age groups. In addition, the contribution of inhibitory control and processing speed to this progressive improvement has not yet been explored. For this reason, and due to the scarcity of studies using CVS paradigm to evaluate selective attention in children, the present study aimed to analyze the relative contribution of processing speed and inhibition to performance during this evolutionary period in a selective attention and CVS task. To do this, a CVS and a simple response speed task were administered to 295 children aged 6-13 years old. Results offered two conclusions: first, selective attention improves during childhood; second, there is no general and exclusive mechanism capable of explaining these differences during this period. Thus, both processing speed and inhibitory control contribute to development of selective attention, and they seem to be more complementary mechanisms than excluding ones.

Razonamiento mecánico, memoria de trabajo y velocidad de procesamiento / Mechanical reasoning, working memory and processing speed

Antecedentes: el razonamiento mecánico (RM) es la habilidad para identificar los componentes de un sistema y comprender como estos interactúan para que el sistema funcione. Distintos sistemas mecánicos, como de rueda y de engranaje, requieren diferentes tipos de razonamiento. Objetivo: este trabajo busca analizar la relación de la MT y la velocidad de procesamiento (VP) con el RM. Método: para ello, se administraron a 173 estudiantes universitarios 30 problemas de RM del test DAT, el sub-test Búsqueda de Símbolos de la batería WAIS-III para evaluar VP y las baterías BIMET-V y BIMET-VE para evaluar los componentes verbal y visoespacial de la MT. Resultados: los análisis de regresión mostraron que las variables propuestas no predicen el rendimiento en problemas de engranajes, mientras que la MT viso-espacial y la VP predicen el rendimiento en problemas de rueda. Discusión: los resultados sugieren que los problemas de engranaje tienen una baja demanda ejecutiva al poder resolverse de forma fraccionada, mientras que los problemas de rueda requieren sostener en memoria la totalidad de los componentes que forman parte del sistema, a la vez que requieren mayor carga atencional.

Background: mechanical reasoning (MR) is the ability to identify the components of a system and understand how they interact in order for the system to work. Different mechanical systems, such as those of wheels and gears, require different types of reasoning. Objective: this study seeks to analyze the relationship that working memory (WM) and processing speed (PS) have with MR. Method: one hundred seventy-three (173) university students were assessed through the DAT test which consisted of 30 MR problems, the symbol search subtest of the WAIS-III battery for assessing the PS, and the BIMET-V and BIMET-VE batteries to evaluate the WM verbal and visuospatial components. Results: regression analyses showed that the proposed variables do not predict the performance in gear problems, while the visuospatial WM and the PS predict the performance in wheel problems. Discussion: the results suggest that gear problems have a low executive demand as they can be solved in a fractional way, while wheel problems require to hold in memory all the components that are part of the system and, at the same time, require a higher attentional load.

Destrezas académicas y velocidad de procesamiento. Modelos predictivos del rendimiento escolar en básica primaria / Academic skills and processing speed. Predictive models of school achievement in primary school

Resumen El modelo de inteligencia de Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) propone que los procesos cognitivos que componen la inteligencia pueden conceptualizarse como habilidades específicas, implicadas en tareas particulares, y habilidades generales, relacionadas con una amplia cantidad de contextos. Entre las habilidades más estudiadas bajo este modelo se encuentra la velocidad de procesamiento, identificada como uno de los mejores predictores del rendimiento académico y de la capacidad cognitiva general. En este artículo se presentan los resultados del análisis de la relación entre la velocidad de procesamiento y rendimiento académico general. Se evaluó una muestra de 223 estudiantes (53% mujeres) de Preescolar y básica primaria. Los resultados muestran una diferencia en la capacidad predictiva del componente perceptual (β =.76, p < .001) y conceptual (β =.09; p = .121) de la velocidad de procesamiento en procesos académicos básicos de lectura y matemática, así como ajustes similares en modelos de regresión a partir de su conceptualización como habilidad general (R2 = .68) o específica (R2 = .69). El análisis de la relación grado a grado mostró cambios en la capacidad predictiva de la velocidad de procesamiento sobre las habilidades académicas conforme avanza el proceso educativo, apoyando modelos previamente establecidos en el área (Cai, Li & Deng, 2013; Demetriou, Spanodius & Shayer, 2014). Finalmente, es generó un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales (X 2=1.431; p=.232; CFI=1.000; TLI=.999; NFI=.999; RFI=.996; RMSEA=.044) que permitió probar el ajuste de los modelos propuestos a los datos.

Abstract The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) intelligence model proposes that the cognitive processes that make up intelligence can be conceptualized as specific skills, involved in particular tasks, and general skills, related to a wide variety of contexts. Among the most studied skills under this model is the speed of processing, identified as one of the best predictors of academic performance and general cognitive ability. This article presents the results of the analysis of the relationship between processing speed and general academic performance. A sample of 223 students (53% women) of preschool and primary school was evaluated. The results show a difference in the predictive capacity of the perceptual component (β = .76, p < .001) and conceptual (β = .09; p = .121) of the processing speed in basic academic processes of reading and mathematics, as well as similar adjustments in regression models from their conceptualization as general (R 2 = .68) or specific (R 2 = .69) ability. The analysis of the grade-to-grade relationship showed changes in the predictive capacity of processing speed over academic skills as the educational process progresses, supporting previously established models in the area (Cai, Li & Deng, 2013; Demetriou, Spanodius & Shayer, 2014). Finally, a model of structural equations (X 2 = 1.431, p = .232, CFI = 1.000, TLI = .999, NFI = .999, RFI = .996, RMSEA = .044) was used to prove the adjustment of the proposed models to data.

Hemoglobin A1c and 10-year information processing speed in Japanese community dwellers

BACKGROUND@#Hyperglycemia is believed to be a risk factor for cognitive decline, but the longitudinal relationship between hyperglycemia and cognitive decline in the Japanese population is unclear. The present study aimed to clarify the association between blood glucose levels and information processing ability in middle-aged and older adults.@*METHODS@#The subjects were 866 men and 815 women aged 40-79 years not taking medication for diabetes who participated in the first study wave (1997-2000) and then participated at least once in the subsequent six study waves (2000-2012) of the National Institute for Longevity Sciences-Longitudinal Study of Aging, Japan. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels were categorized into four groups (< 5.6, 5.6 to < 6.0, 6.0 to < 6.5, ≥ 6.5%), and a mixed-effects model was used to evaluate the effects of the HbA1c level (four groups) on repeated measures of information processing speed. The models also included baseline age, body mass index, ethanol intake, smoking status, educational level, family income, and history of stroke, hypertension, heart disease, and dyslipidemia as covariates.@*RESULTS@#Mean (standard deviation) HbA1c and follow-up time in participants were 5.2 (0.5) % and 10.0 (3.6) years, respectively. A linear mixed model showed that the main effect of the four HbA1c groups on information processing ability was not significant in either men or women, but the interaction of HbA1c and time with information processing speed in the higher HbA1c level groups (≥ 6.5% group in men, 6.0 to < 6.5% and ≥ 6.5% groups in women) was significant compared to the lower HbA1c level (< 5.6%) group (P < 0.05). When the slope of information processing speed by HbA1c level at baseline was examined, the slope of information processing speed in the higher HbA1c level (≥ 6.5%) group was higher than in the lower HbA1c level (< 5.6%) group, both in men (- 0.31/year) and in women (- 0.30/year), as well as in women with an HbA1c level of 6.0 to < 6.5% (- 0.40/year).@*CONCLUSIONS@#Higher baseline HbA1c was associated with greater subsequent decline in information processing ability in Japanese community dwellers, even with the pre-clinical HbA1c level (6.0 to < 6.5%) in women. The results suggest that good glycemic control or prevention of hyperglycemia may contribute to maintaining information processing ability.

The mediating effect of intelligence between the information processing speed and numerical magnitude in hearing-impaired children / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective@#To explore the mediating role of intelligence in the relationship between information processing speed and numerical magnitude processing of hearing-impaired children.@*Methods@#A survey was conducted among 249 hearing-impaired children by using tests of Choice Reaction Time, Numerosity Comparison, and Raven's Progressive Matrices(simplified version).@*Results@#(1)The accurate rate of information processing speed(0.89±0.18)of hearing-impaired children was positively correlated with that of numerical magnitude processing(0.65±0.15)and intelligence(11.83±10.34)(r=0.165, 0.263, both P<0.01). The reaction time of information processing speed was negatively correlated with those of numerical magnitude processing and intelligence(r=-0.164, -0.197, both P<0.05). And there was significant positive correlation between intelligence and numerical magnitude processing (accurate rate and reaction time ) (r=0.269, 0.140, both P<0.05). (2)The accurate rate of information processing speed significantly predicted that of numerical magnitude processing in hearing-impaired children(β=0.17, t=2.64, both P<0.01). The reaction time of information processing speed significantly predicted that of numerical magnitude processing in hearing-impaired children(β=-0.16, t=-2.61, both P<0.05). And intelligence played a complete mediating role in this relationship and the moderating effect were 36.71% and 31.25%.@*Conclusion@#Information processing speed has indirect effects on numerical magnitude processing through intelligence in hearing-impaired children.

The mediating effect of intelligence between the information processing speed and numerical magni-tude in hearing-impaired children / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective To explore the mediating role of intelligence in the relationship between in-formation processing speed and numerical magnitude processing of hearing-impaired children. Methods A survey was conducted among 249 hearing-impaired children by using tests of Choice Reaction Time,Numero-sity Comparison,and Raven's Progressive Matrices( simplified version). Results (1) The accurate rate of information processing speed(0. 89±0. 18)of hearing-impaired children was positively correlated with that of numerical magnitude processing(0. 65±0. 15)and intelligence(11. 83±10. 34)(r=0. 165,0. 263,both P<0. 01). The reaction time of information processing speed was negatively correlated with those of numerical mag-nitude processing and intelligence(r=-0. 164,-0. 197,both P<0. 05). And there was significant positive correlation between intelligence and numerical magnitude processing (accurate rate and reaction time ) (r=0. 269,0. 140,both P<0. 05). ( 2) The accurate rate of information processing speed significantly predicted that of numerical magnitude processing in hearing-impaired children( β=0. 17,t=2. 64,both P<0. 01). The reaction time of information processing speed significantly predicted that of numerical magnitude processing in hearing-impaired children(β=-0. 16,t=-2. 61,both P<0. 05). And intelligence played a complete medi-ating role in this relationship and the moderating effect were 36. 71% and 31. 25%. Conclusion Information processing speed has indirect effects on numerical magnitude processing through intelligence in hearing-im-paired children.

Resolution of Arithmetic Problems, Processing Speed and Working Memory in Children / Resolução de Problemas Aritméticos, Velocidade de Processamento e Memória de Trabalho em Crianças / Resolución de Problemas Aritméticos, Velocidad de Procesamiento y Memoria de Trabajo en Niños Resumen

Abstract This study sought to characterize the performance of children in an arithmetic word problem test regarding choice of strategy, type of operation and age. It also analyzed possible links between the resolution of addition and subtraction problems, processing speed and working memory. Four tests were administered with 233 children of 4, 5 and 6 years of age from Buenos Aires, Argentina: (a) an arithmetic word problem test, (b) the Corsi block tapping test, (c) a digit span test, and (d) a reaction time task. Results showed a significant increase in precision when solving arithmetic word problems between ages 4 and 6. While 4-year-old children relied mainly on visual aids to solve the problems, 5 and 6-year-olds incorporated finger counting and mental calculation as efficient strategies. Arithmetic scores were associated with both verbal and visuospatial working memory scores. While only the visuospatial component predicted accuracy in the children that depended on visual aids or finger counting, both components of working memory predicted the performance of the children that primarily used mental calculation.

Resumo A presente pesquisa procurou estudar o desempenho das crianças na resolução de problemas aritméticos ao analisar à estratégia, o tipo de operação e a idade. Também se analisou possíveis relações entre a resolução de adições e subtrações, a velocidade de processamento e a memória de trabalho. Quatro testes foram administrados a 233 crianças de 4, 5 e 6 anos: (a) Um de problema aritmético, (b) A tarefa de blocos de Corsi, (c) A retenção de dígitos, (d) Uma tarefa de tempo de reação. Os resultados mostraram um aumento significativo na precisão para resolver problemas de aritmética entre 4 e 6 anos. Aos 4 anos a estratégia mais eficaz foi o uso dos recursos visuais, e aos 5 e 6 anos foram mais eficazes a contagem com os dedos e o cálculo mental. As pontuações nos problemas aritméticos associaram-se com a capacidade de memória de trabalho verbal e viso-espacial. No caso das crianças que usaram recursos visuais ou a contagem com os dedos para resolver operações, o componente da memória de trabalho que significativamente previu o seu desempenho foi o viso-espacial. Enquanto as crianças que fizeram uso do cálculo mental, os dois componentes da memória de trabalho previram o seu desempenho.

Resumen El presente estudio buscó caracterizar el desempeño de niños en problemas aritméticos teniendo en cuenta la estrategia utilizada, el tipo de operación y la edad. Se analizó, además, los posibles vínculos entre la resolución de operaciones, la velocidad de procesamiento y la memoria de trabajo. Se administraron cuatro pruebas a 233 niños de 4, 5 y 6 años de edad de Buenos Aires, Argentina: (a) problemas aritméticos, (b) bloques de Corsi, (c) span de dígitos, (d) tiempos de reacción. Se observó un aumento en la precisión en problemas aritméticos entre los 4 y los 6 años. Los niños de 4 años recurrieron principalmente a ayudas visuales, mientras que los niños de 5 y 6 años utilizaron mayormente el conteo de dedos y el cálculo mental. Los puntajes en problemas aritméticos se asociaron con los obtenidos para los componentes verbal y viso-espacial de la memoria de trabajo. En el caso de los niños que dependían de ayudas visuales o conteo con dedos para resolver las operaciones el componente que predijo de forma significativa su rendimiento fue el viso-espacial, mientras que ambos componentes de la memoria de trabajo predijeron el rendimiento de aquellos niños que utilizaban principalmente el cálculo mental.

Working Memory, Proces sing Speed and General Intelligence: Possible Models of Relations with Visuospatial Working Memory Using the Visuospatial Computerized Working Memory Battery (BIMeT-VE) / Memória de Trabalho, Velocidade de Processamento e Inteligência Geral: Possíveis Modelos de Relacionamento com a Memória de Trabalho Visual e Espacial Usando a Bateria Computorizada de Memória de Trabalho Visual e Espacial (BIMeT-VE) / Memoria de Trabajo, Velocidad de Procesamiento e Inteligencia General: Posibles Modelos de Relación con la Memoria de Trabajo Viso-Espacial Utilizando la Batería Informatizada de Memoria de Trabajo viso-espacial (BIMeT-VE)

Abstract Working memory is an active memory system serving the realization of complex cognitive tasks. Over the last decades' research has centered on studying the relationship of this memory system or any of its components with different cognitive functions, such as intelligence. The aim of this study is to analyze the relation between visuospatial working memory, processing speed and general intelligence, and the possible mediation role of some of these variables. To carry out this work, two studies were conducted. On Study 1 participated212 Spanish speaking college students, and a Spanish visuospatial working memory battery was designed and validated -the visuospatial Computerized Working Memory Battery (Batería Informatizada de Memoria de Trabajo Viso-Espacial; BIMeT-VE)-. On Study 2 participated 114 Spanish speaking college students, and the relationship among visuospatial working memory, processing speed and general intelligence was analyzed. The results showed that general intelligence is directly supported by the processing speed and to maintain visuospatial information for short periods of time, and indirectly by the ability to concurrently process visuospatial information.

Resumo A memória de trabalho é um sistema de memória ativo ao serviço da realização de tarefas cognitivas complexas. Nas últimas décadas as pesquisas têm-se centrado em estudar a relação entre a memória de trabalho ou seus subsistemas e outras funções cognitivas, como a inteligência. O objetivo deste estudo é analisar a relação entre a memória de trabalho visuoespacial, a velocidade de processamento e a inteligência geral, e o possível papel mediador destas variáveis. Por esta razão, foram feitos dois estudos. No primeiro desenhou-se e validou-se a Bateria Computorizada de Memória de Trabalho Visual e Espacial (BIMeT-VE) numa amostra de 212 estudantes universitários. No segundo estudo que envolveu 114 estudantes universitários analisou-se a relação entre a memória de trabalho visual e espacial, a velocidade de processamento e a inteligência geral. Os resultados mostraram que a inteligência geral está diretamente associada com a velocidade de processamento e com a habilidade de manter a informação visual e espacial a curto prazo, e indiretamente pela habilidade de processar informação visual e espacial de maneira simultânea.

Resumen La memoria de trabajo es un sistema de memoria activo al servicio de la realización de tareas cognitivas complejas. En las últimas décadas las investigaciones se han centrado sobre la relación de este sistema de memoria o alguno de sus componentes con diferentes funciones cognitivas, como la inteligencia. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar la relación entre la memoria de trabajo viso-espacial, la velocidad de procesamiento y la inteligencia general, y evaluar el posible rol mediador de alguna de estas variables. Para ello se realizaron dos estudios. En el Estudio 1 se diseñó y validó la Batería Informatizada de Memoria de Trabajo Viso-Espacial (BIMeT-VE) con 212 estudiantes universitarios hispanoparlantes. En el Estudio 2, en el que participaron 114 estudiantes universitarios hispanoparlantes se estudió la relación entre la memoria de trabajo viso-espacial, la velocidad de procesamiento y la inteligencia general. Los resultados mostraron que la inteligencia general está directamente relacionada con la velocidad de procesamiento y con la habilidad de mantener información viso-espacial por breves períodos de tiempo, e indirectamente por la habilidad de procesar concurrentemente información viso-espacial.

Subjective Age and Cognitive Functioning in Old Age

OBJECTIVE: The present study has examined whether subjective age would be associated with cognitive functioning in older adults. METHODS: Data from the third wave of Korean Social Life, Health, and Aging Project were used. This study was conducted with 152 older adults aged 60–89 years (mean=72.26, standard deviation=6.41) who completed measures of subjective age, Mini-Mental State Examination for Dementia Screening, Elderly Verbal Learning Test, Digit Span Test, Korean-Color Word Stroop Test, Trail Making Test, Verbal Fluency Test, Korean Boston Naming Test-Short form. The association of subjective age and cognitive functioning was analyzed using hierarchical regression analysis. Sex, depression, and chronological age were included as control variables. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that a younger subjective age was associated with better processing speed, immediate memory, and executive function respectively. Even after controlling for chronological age, depression, and sex, the subjective age was associated with cognitive functioning in old age. CONCLUSION: Beyond chronological age, the subjective experience of age was associated with cognitive aging.

Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia Using Trail Making Test: A Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE: The present meta-analysis aimed to analyze the cognitive performance of schizophrenia patients measured by Trail Making Tests (TMT) and the contribution of socio-demographic factors to cognitive impairments. METHODS: PubMed and PsycARTICLES databases were searched for the studies published between January 1985 and November 2017. Data were drawn from 19 studies encompassing 1095 patients and 324 controls. The effect size and heterogeneity were assessed with Comprehensive Meta-Analysis version 2 using random-effect model. RESULTS: Overall, the results showed that the schizophrenia patients performed significantly (p < 0.001) worse than healthy controls in both TMT-A and B. However, concurrent substance abuse, clinical status (inpatient or outpatient), duration of education and duration of illness were not associated with cognitive impairment among the schizophrenia patients. CONCLUSION: The present meta-analysis confirmed the cognitive processing speed and flexibility of schizophrenia patients were impaired. However, their duration of education, duration of illness and clinical status (inpatient or outpatient) were not the risk factors.

Relationship of Working Memory, Processing Speed, and Fluid Reasoning in Psychiatric Patients

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to investigate relationship among cognitive factors (working memory and processing speed) and fluid reasoning (Gf) in psychiatric patients using a standardized clinical tool. METHODS: We included the responses of 115 heterogeneous patients who were diagnosed with the MINI-Plus 5.0 and WAIS-IV/WMS-IV was administered. For our analysis, structured equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to evaluate which cognitive variables are closely related to the Gf. RESULTS: The results showed that the visual working memory was the strongest predictor of the Gf compared to other cognitive factors. CONCLUSION: Processing speed was capable of predicting the Gf, when visual working memory was controlled. The inter-relationship among the Gf and other cognitive factors and its clinical implications were further discussed.

The Five Digits Test in the assessment of older adults with low formal education: construct validity and reliability in a Brazilian clinical sample / O Teste dos Cinco Dígitos na avaliação de idosos com baixa escolaridade: validade de construto e confiabilidade em uma amostra clínica do Brasil

Abstract Introduction In the assessment of older adults with very low formal education, typical tests of selective attention and inhibitory control are biased by reading abilities. In this sense, we aim to assess the psychometric characteristics of the Five Digits Test (FDT), a numerical Stroop paradigm, in older adults without cognitive disorders, with mild cognitive impairment, and with dementia. Methods We assessed 211 Brazilian older adults with low formal education using the FDT and other cognitive measures. Construct validity and reliability were assessed by correlations and internal consistency. Results The FDT test had weak correlations with crystalized intelligence tests and moderate-high correlations with fluid intelligence measures and tests of global cognitive status and executive functions. The split-half coefficient of reliability showed high internal consistency (>0.900). Conclusion Together, the results suggest that the FDT is a valid and reliable measure for the assessment of processing speed and executive functions in older adults with low formal education.

Resumo Introdução Na avaliação de idosos com educação formal muito baixa, os testes típicos de atenção seletiva e controle inibitório são enviesados devido à dependência de habilidades básicas de leitura. Nesse sentido, pretende-se avaliar as características psicométricas do Teste dos Cinco Dígitos (Five Digits Test, FDT), teste de paradigma Stroop-numérico, em idosos sem transtornos cognitivos, em pacientes com comprometimento cognitivo e em pacientes com demência. Métodos Foram avaliados 211 idosos brasileiros com baixa escolarização formal por meio do FDT e outras medidas cognitivas. Analisamos a validade de construto e a confiabilidade por correlações e consistência interna. Resultados O FDT apresentou correlações fracas com testes de inteligência cristalizada e correlações de moderadas ou fortes com medidas de inteligência fluida, medidas cognitivas globais e testes de funções executivas. O teste apresentou consistência interna elevada (>0.900). Conclusão Em conjunto, os resultados sugerem que o FDT é uma medida válida e confiável para a avaliação da velocidade de processamento e funções executivas em idosos com baixa escolaridade.

Cálculo mental en niños y su relación con habilidades cognitivas / Mental arithmetic in children and its relation to cognitive abilities

Resumen: Este trabajo buscó analizar si las variables memoria de trabajo (MT) verbal, MT visoespacial, velocidad de procesamiento y habilidad verbal pueden predecir la habilidad de los niños para el cálculo mental durante la realización de problemas aritméticos simples. Se administraron los subtests Vocabulario y Span de Dígitos del WISC-III; el subtest Casita de Animales del WPPSI-R y una prueba de problemas aritméticos (ad hoc) a 70 niños de 6 años. Un análisis de regresión lineal con el método stepwise mostró que solo la MT visoespacial predijo la variabilidad en las puntuaciones de cálculo mental (t=4.72; p<0.001; β=0.50). Los resultados son contrarios a estudios realizados en adultos y niños mayores en los cuales el mayor peso recae sobre la MT verbal. Es posible que a medida que los niños crecen la automatización de ciertos procesos de conteo y el almacenamiento de hechos aritméticos en la memoria de largo plazo produzca que dependan en mayor medida de la MT verbal para la resolución de este tipo de cálculos.

Abstract: This study aimed to analyze whether verbal working memory (WM), visual-spatial WM, processing speed, and verbal ability predicted children's ability to perform mental arithmetic. Five tests were administered to 70 6-years-old children: the Vocabulary and Digits Span subtests from the WISC-III Intelligence Scale, the Animal Pegs subtest from WPPSI-R, and an arithmetic test (ad hoc). A linear regression analysis showed that only visual-spatial WM predicted the variability in children's scores in the arithmetic test (t=4.72; P<.001; β=.50). These findings contradict studies carried out in adults and older children where verbal WM seemed to play a greater role in the subject's ability to conduct calculations without external aids. It is possible that as they grow older, the automation of certain counting processes, as well as the storage and recovery of arithmetic knowledge from long-term memory will cause them to rely primarily on verbal WM resources.

Velocidad de Procesamiento como Indicador de Vocabulario en el Segundo Año de Vida / Processing Speed as a Predictor of Vocabulary in the Second Year of Life

El propósito del presente estudio fue determinar si la velocidad de procesamiento, medida como tiempo de reacción (TR), de infantes antes del primer año de edad obtenida en una tarea de aprendizaje de palabras, puede ser un indicador del desempeño de los mismos en medidas de habilidades comunicativas durante el segundo año de vida. Para ello, se obtuvo el TR de infantes de 10 meses de edad en una tarea de aprendizaje de palabras y se relacionó con las habilidades comunicativas de los mismos infantes obtenidos en el Inventario de Habilidades Comunicativas MacArthur Versión II (CDI-II) 18 meses después. Se realizó un análisis de regresión lineal utilizando el TR en la tarea experimental como predictor y el puntaje de vocabulario obtenido como variable dependiente. Se encontró que el TR medido a los 10 meses de edad puede usarse como predictor del desempeño en la medida de vocabulario en los mismos infantes un año y medio después. Los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo resaltan la importancia del estudio del TR en edades tempranas y sus efectos sobre el proceso de aprendizaje de palabras.

The aim of this study was to determine if processing speed, measured as visual reaction time (RT), of 10 month-olds obtained through an IPLP (Intermodal Preferential Looking Paradigm) in a word learning task, can be an indicator of communicative abilities such as productive vocabulary, during the second year of life. Participants were 13 infants of 9-12 months of age (X=10.15) at the beginning of the study, whose native language was Spanish and without visual or auditory problems reported by parents. The same group of infants was evaluated when they were between 24 and 30 months of age. Infants' RT's were obtained at the age of 10 months in a word learning task, and related to communicative abilities measured with the Inventario de Habilidades Comunicativas MacArthur Versión II (CDI-II) when the infants were between 24 and 30 months of age (X=27.10). A linear regression analysis was performed using the RT from the experimental task as a predictor and the CDI-II vocabulary score as dependent variable. It was found that RT measured at 10 months of age can be used as a predictor of the vocabulary size in the same infants 18 months later. The results presented here imply that infants who take longer in processing a novel object associated with a novel word, are the ones who will have more words in their productive vocabulary during the second year of life, as reported by parents. The measures of processing speed in this study, demonstrates the length of time it takes a child to process non-familiar information in real time. The results obtained, support the study of processing speed at early ages in tasks that measure cognitive abilities other than word recognition. It suggests taking into account the analysis of individual differences, either processing speed or vocabulary, to better understand the relationship between these two variables in the first years of life. Furthermore, the results obtained in this paper highlight the importance of the study of RT in early ages and give information about the effects of slower or faster information processing over different linguistic abilities in infants.

A velocidade de processamento e as dificuldades de aprendizagem na aritmética / The processing speed and the arithmetic’s learning difficulties / La velocidad de procesamiento y las dificultades de aprendizaje en la aritmética

Estudos em velocidade de processamento, uma das habilidades cognitivas subjacentes à aprendizagem da aritmética, têm despertado o interesse de pesquisadores nas áreas de educação matemática, psicologia cognitiva e neuropsicologia. A literatura indica que uma baixa velocidade deprocessamento é uma das características dos alunos que apresentam dificuldades de aprendizagem na aritmética. Este artigo apresenta os resultados de pesquisa, ainda pouco conclusivos, que relacionam a velocidade de processamento e as dificuldades na aritmética. Discute a relação entre a velocidade de processamento e a memória de trabalho, outra habilidade cognitiva fundamental para a aprendizagem da matemática, e destaca a perspectiva de complementaridade entre estas duas funções. Por fim, o artigo relaciona a velocidade de processamento e a fluência em fatosaritméticos, e dá ênfase à hipótese de que uma baixa velocidade de processamento contribui para sobrecarregar a memória de trabalhoacarretando dificuldades para a recuperação de fatos da memória de longo prazo. Destaca-se a necessidade de mais pesquisa para que se possa melhor definir o papel da velocidade de processamento na aprendizagem daaritmética e, assim, avançar na intervenção preventiva e corretiva dasdificuldades nesta área...

Studies in processing speed, one of the cognitive abilities underlying arithmetic learning, have attracted the interest of researchers in mathematics education, cognitive psychology and neuropsychology. The literature indicates that a low processing speed is one of the characteristics of students who have learning difficulties in arithmetic. This article presentsresearch results, still not conclusive, linking processing speed to difficulties in arithmetic. It discusses the relationship between processing speed and working memory, another key cognitive skill for learning mathematics, and highlights the complementary perspective between these two functions. Finally, the article relates processing speed and the fluency in arithmetic fact retrieval, and emphasizes the hypothesis that a low processing speed contributes to overload working memory, causing difficulties for retrieving facts from long term memory. The article highlights the need for more research in order to better define the role that processing speed plays in learning arithmetic, and thus, be able to advance in the preventive and corrective intervention processes in this area...

Los estudios realizados en la velocidad de procesamiento, una de las habilidades cognitivas subyacentes a aprendizaje de la aritmética, han atraído el interés de los investigadores en educación matemática, la psicología cognitiva y la neuropsicología. La literatura indica que una baja velocidad de procesamiento es una de las características de los estudiantesque tienen dificultades de aprendizaje artimética. En este artículo se presentan los resultados de la investigación, poco concluyente de que se refieren a la velocidad de procesamiento y las dificultades para la aritmética. Discute la relación entre la velocidad de procesamiento y la memoria de trabajo, otra habilidad cognitiva fundamental para el aprendizaje de matemáticas, y pone de relieve la perspectiva de complementariedad entre estas dos funciones. Por último, el artículo relaciona la velocidad de procesamiento y la fluidez en hechos aritméticos, y hace hincapié en la hipótesis de que una baja velocidad de procesamiento contribuye a la sobrecarga de la memoria de trabajo que causa dificultades para la recuperación de datos desde la memoria a largo plazo. Destaca la necesidad de más investigación para poder definir mejor el papel de la velocidad de procesamiento en el aprendizaje de la aritmética y de este modo avanzar en la intervención preventiva y correctiva de las dificultades en esta área...

Três hipóteses sobre a natureza das tarefas de nomeação seriada rápida / Three hypotheses on the nature of rapid automatized naming tasks

O presente estudo investigou a natureza das tarefas de nomeação seriada rápida, considerando três hipóteses sobre o que elas representariam: (1) medidas da recuperação de códigos fonológicos da memória de longo prazo; (2) medidas da velocidade de processamento geral; e (3) medidas de processos relacionados ao reconhecimento de padrões visuais. Participaram da pesquisa 174 crianças brasileiras cursando o 5º ano do Ensino Fundamental em escolas particulares. Análises fatoriais confirmatórias indicaram que nenhuma das três hipóteses se mostrou consistente com os dados. Porém, em um modelo de regressão estrutural construído para avaliar a contribuição desses fatores para a nomeação seriada rápida, o único que contribuiu significativamente foi o fator 'velocidade de processamento geral'...

The present study aimed to investigate the nature of rapid automatized naming tasks, considering three hypotheses about what they represent: (1) measures of retrieval of phonological codes from a long-term store; (2) measures of general processing speed; and (3) measures of visual pattern recognition processes. The participants were 174 children from the 5th grade of Brazilian private schools. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that none of the hypotheses were consistent with the data. However, in a structural regression model the factor 'general processing speed' was the only one that contributed significantly to rapid automatized naming...

Velocidade de processamento da informação em adolescentes de escolas públicas e privadas / Speed of Information processing in adolescents from public and private schools / Velocidad de Tratamiento de la información en los adolescentes de escuelas públicas y privadas

A velocidade de processamento da informação se refere à atividade mental por certo período de tempo. O objetivo do estudo foi investigar esta velocidade de processamento em adolescentes de 14 anos de escolas públicas e privadas. Foram selecionadas 14 adolescentes (sexo feminino) que cursavam o 9º ano do Ensino Fundamental ou o 1º ano do Ensino Médio. Foram avaliadas por meio do IVP (Código, Procurar símbolos e Cancelamento) da WISC-IV e do Teste de Trilhas Coloridas Infantil (TTCI). O teste qui-quadrado apontou maior número de quase erros no TTCI em meninas que frequentavam escola privada. Nenhuma diferença foi encontrada entre os grupos no IVP. Embora o tipo de escola não pareça produzir diferenças entre os grupos no IVP, o número de quase erros, indicativo de distração, mostrou-se mais sensível para identificar essas diferenças. Sugere-se que o número de quase erros possa indicar diferenças mais sutis entre os grupos...

The speed of information processing refers to attainment of mental activity in a certain period of time. The aim of this study was investigate the speed of information processing in 14 years old girls, who attended public and private schools. We selected 14 girls who were in the 9th grade of elementary school or 1st year of high school. Half of them attended public school and the other half attended private school. They were evaluated by: Processing Speed Index - PSI (Coding, Symbol Search and Cancellation) of the WISC - IV and the Trail Making Test Colored Children (TTCI). The chi-square test showed a higher number of near-misses in CCTT in girls attending private school compared to girls attending public school. No difference was found between the two groups in the PSI. Although the type of school does not seem to produce significant differences between the groups in the PVI, the number of nearmisses showed a more sensitive measure to identify these differences. It is suggested that the number of near-misses may indicate subtle differences between groups...

La velocidad de procesamiento de información se refiere a la realización de actividad mental en un determinado período de tiempo. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar la velocidad de procesamiento de información en adolescentes de 14 años que asisten a escuelas públicas y privadas. Fueron seleccionado 14 adolescentes, de sexo femenino que curzaban 9 º o 10º grado. La mitad asistia a la escuela pública y la otra mitad a la escuela privada. Fueron evaluadas utilizando las siguientes pruebas: IVP (Código, búsqueda y cancelación de símbolos) de la bacteria WISC-IV y test infantil de sequencias coloreadas (TISC). El t-test mostro un mayor número de casi errores en TISC en las niñas que asisten a las escuelas privadas. No se encontraron diferencias entre los dos grupos en las otro pruebas. Se sugiere que la medición de la cantidad de casi errores revelan una mayor sensibilidad en TTCI...

Executive function and processing speed in Brazilian HIV-infected children and adolescents / Funções executivas e velocidade de processamento em crianças e adolescentes brasileiros infectados por HIV

BACKGROUND: Cognitive disorders in infants and children who are vertically infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have been recognized since the inception of the epidemic. OBJECTIVE: The present study investigated neuropsychological performance in a cohort of vertically infected Brazilian children and adolescents who underwent antiretroviral therapy. The neuropsychological tasks were designed to evaluate executive function and processing speed. METHODS: Children and adolescents were recruited at a major research and treatment reference center for human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV) in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Forty-one individuals aged 5 to 17 years were enrolled. Twelve were mildly symptomatic (HIV-infected group, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] class A or B), and 29 had advanced clinical disease (AIDS group, CDC class C). RESULTS: The results showed that HIV-infected children and adolescents exhibited lower performance on neuropsychological tasks than sociodemographically comparable, typically developing controls. Motor and cognitive processing speed and executive function appeared to be the most discriminative domains. CONCLUSION: HIV-infected individuals with more-advanced disease stages exhibited lower performance levels and had greater performance heterogeneity on neuropsychological tasks. Thus, the observed neuropsychological impairments, although more pronounced in participants with more advanced stages of the disease, did not correlate with the variable used (CDC stage).

INTRODUÇÃO: Comprometimentos cognitivos em crianças e adolescentes verticalmente afetadas por HIV são reconhecidos desde do início da epidemia. Objetivos: O presente estudo investigou o desempenho neuropsicológico em uma coorte de crianças e adolescentes verticalmente infectadas por HIV e que fazem uso da terapia antirretroviral no Brasil. As tarefas neuropsicológicas foram selecionadas para avaliar, principalmente, funções executivas e velocidade de processamento. MÉTODOS: As crianças e adolescentes foram recrutados em um grande centro de referência de pesquisa e tratamento para o vírus da imunodeficiência humana / síndrome da imunodeficiência adquirida (HIV / AIDS), em Minas Gerais, Brasil. Quarenta e um indivíduos com idade entre 5 e 17 anos foram selecionados. Doze estavam com sintomas leves (grupo infectado pelo HIV, Centros para Controle e Prevenção de Doenças [CDC] Classe A ou B), e 29 tiveram a doença clínica avançada (grupo AIDS, CDC classe C). RESULTADOS: Os resultados mostraram que as crianças e adolescentes infectados pelo HIV apresentaram menor desempenho em tarefas neuropsicológicas quando comparadas com o grupo controle pareado socio-demograficamente. Habilidades motoras, velocidade de processamento e função executiva são os domínios mais discriminativos. CONCLUSÃO: Indivíduos infectados pelo HIV com estágios da doença mais avançados apresentaram níveis mais baixos de desempenho e tiveram maior heterogeneidade no desempenho em tarefas neuropsicológicas. Entretanto, os prejuízos neuropsicológicos observados, apesar de se mostrarem mais pronunciados com estágios mais avançados da doença, não se correlacionaram com a variável utilizada (estágio do CDC).