Oral health knowledge, attitude and oral hygiene practices among adults in Rwanda

Introduction: oral diseases (OD), commonly dental caries and periodontitis are a major public health problem. Poor oral hygiene has been associated with OD, causing tooth loss, which leads to disability and compromised patients' oral health. In Rwanda, OD is among the leading causes of morbidity at the health center level. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the knowledge, attitude, and oral health practices among adult participants in Rwanda Methods: a descriptive cross-sectional study was done among participants attending public health facilities in Nyarugenge District, Rwanda. Participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The data were analyzed using frequency distribution, percentage distribution, and bivariate and multivariate logistic regression at a 5% significant level. Results: among 426 participants who were interviewed, 39.44% (n=168) were 18-27 years old and the majority, 61.5% (n=262) were female. Poor oral health knowledge was found in 42% (n=179) of the participants, whilst 12.44% (n=53) showed poor oral health attitudes, and 67.37% (n=287) were found to have poor oral health practice. Participants with a high school level of education were more likely to have better oral health knowledge and the results were statistically significant aOR: 1.79, 95% CI 1.14; 2.82; p = 0.011 Conclusion: the findings of our study showed that almost half of the participants had poor oral health knowledge. Oral health attitude and oral hygiene practices were also lacking. There is a need to enhance oral health education in this community to improve their oral health knowledge, attitudes, and practices.

Risk factors of transfusion transmissible infections among blood donors at Karongi Regional Centre for blood transfusion in Rwanda

Background Blood transfusion saves human lives, but also it can be a route for TransfusionTransmissible Infections (TTIs) including Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus (HIV), Hepatitis B virus (HBV), Hepatitis C virus (HCV), and syphilis. Objective This study aimed to explore the risk factors associated with TTIs among blood donors at Regional Centre for Blood Transfusion (RCBT) of Karongi, Rwanda. Methods This was a retrospective cross-sectional study design conducted among 36,708 blood donors from 2015 to 2019. Data were extracted from the system known as eProgesaused and the outcome variable were TTIs including HBV, HCV and HIV (measured using Enzyme Immuno-Assay/Chemiluminescence Immunoassay) and syphilis (determined by Rapid Reagin Plasma). Descriptive statistics was computed to describe the characteristics of the blood donors. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression were performed to assess the risk factors associated with TTIs. P value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results The study found that the overall prevalence of TTIs was 2.1%, while the prevalences of HBV, HCV, HIV, and syphilis were 1.3%, 0.4%, 0.06%, and 0.34%, respectively. Multivariable analysis showed that the factors associated with HBV, HCV, HIV and syphilis were being male, age more than 25 years, being married, living in urban areas, first time blood donors and blood donors living in Rusizi, Rusizi, Nyamasheke and Karongi districts. Conclusion This study revealed that the most frequent TTI was HBV among blood donors and the main risk groups were males, age group of 26-35 years, married and first time donors. Hence, while developing health policies to reduce the effects of HBV infection on safe blood transfusion, these study findings should be taken into account.

Challenges and opportunities to improve efficiency and quality of prehospital emergency care using an mHealth platform: Qualitative study in Rwanda

Introduction: Prompt, high-quality pre-hospital emergency medical services (EMS) can significantly reduce morbidity and mortality. The goal of this study was to identify factors that compromise efficiency and quality of pre-hospital emergency care in Rwanda, and explore the opportunities for a mobile health (mHealth) tool to address these challenges. Methods: In-depth interviews were conducted with 21 individuals representing four stakeholder groups: EMS dispatch staff, ambulance staff, hospital staff, and policymakers. A semi-structured interview guide explored participants' perspectives on all aspects of the pre-hospital emergency care continuum, from receiving a call at dispatch to hospital handover. Participants were asked how the current system could be improved, and the potential utility of an mHealth tool to address existing challenges. Interviews were audio-recorded, and transcripts were thematically analyzed using NVivo. Results: Stakeholders identified factors that compromise the efficiency and quality of care across the prehospital emergency care continuum: triage at dispatch, dispatching the ambulance, locating the emergency, coordinating patient care at scene, preparing the receiving hospital, and patient handover to the hospital. They identified four areas where an mHealth tool could improve care: efficient location of the emergency, streamline communication for decision making, documentation with real-time communication, and routine data for quality improvement. While stakeholders identified advantages of an mHealth tool, they also mentioned challenges that would need to be addressed, namely: limited internet bandwidth, capacity to maintain and update software, and risks of data security breaches that could lead to stolen or lost data. Conclusion: Despite the success of Rwanda's EMS system, this study highlights factors across the care continuum that could compromise quality and efficiency of prehospital emergency care. Mobile health tools hold great promise to address these challenges, but contextual issues need to be considered to ensure sustainability of use.

Awareness of Stroke among University Employees in Kigali, Rwanda: A Cross Sectional Study

Background Awareness of stroke is important for appropriate and timely stroke prevention and management. Objective To assess the level of awareness about the risk factors, signs, and appropriate responses for stroke among university employees in Rwanda. Methods We employed a quantitative descriptive cross-sectional approach. We involved 92 participants, and a self-administered questionnaire to collect data. We computed descriptive statistics and used the Chi-Square test to assess any differences in stroke awareness. Results We found that 12% and 15.2% of the participants were not aware of any risk factor and warning sign of stroke respectively. Regarding the reaction in case a warning sign of stroke was noticed, 9.8% of the participants indicated that they would do nothing or advise the victim to take rest at home. The limited awareness was significantly higher in the administrative than academic employees for both risk factors (p=0.002) and warning signs (p=0.006), but not for the appropriate responses to stroke (p=0.426). Conclusion A significant proportion of the participants were not aware of any stroke risk factor, warning sign and appropriate responses. It is important to conduct further similar studies and implement stroke education interventions in university communities

Tuberculosis treatment and factors associated with unsuccessful tuberculosis treatment outcome among TB/HIV co-infected patients in Rwanda: A retrospective cohort study

Introduction Mycobacterium tuberculosis remains the main cause of death as an infectious agent of Tuberculosis in humans, particularly in resource-poor settings. Worldwide, Tuberculosis is one of the top 10 causes of mortality. Objective of the study This study aims to determine the outcomes of TB treatment and assess the factors associated with unsuccessful TB treatment outcome among TB/HIV co-infected patients in Rwanda. Methods This was a retrospective cohort study of all TB/HIV co-infected patients reported in the national electronic TB reporting system (e-TB) by all health facilities from July 2019 to June 2020. Frequencies, proportions, bivariate and multivariate logistic regression were performed to determine factors associated with unsuccessful TB treatment. Results There were 1,144 people reported in the e-TB, however, only 987 were included in the study because 157 patients did not meet the inclusion criteria.The TB/HIV coinfected patients who were not given nutritional support, OR 7.3, 95%CI [1.4, 37.6] and those who were not on ART,OR15.3, 95%CI [3.6, 69.6],were more likely to have unsuccessful treatment outcome than their counterparts. Conclusion Unsuccessful TB treatment outcomes were highly observed among TB/HIV coinfected patients. The study recommended reinforcing nutritional support and early initiation of ART among TB/HIV co-infected patients.

Quality of care for patients with hypertension in selected Health Centres in Rwamagana District, Rwanda

Background Hypertension is the main risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and its prevalence is high in Rwanda. Rwanda has integrated the management of hypertension in health centres (HCs). However, little is known about the quality of hypertension care in HCs in Rwanda. Study objective To examine the quality of care for patients with hypertension and associated outcome of hypertension control in Health Centres. Methods A cross-sectional study design was used, and data were collected from a convenience sample of 202 patients. A self-reported questionnaire and blood pressure measurement were taken. Data were analysed using descriptive, bivariate, and hierarchical logistic regression analyses. Results A total of 166 (82.2%) patients participated in the study. Of these, 130 (78.3%) were females. Mean age was 57.8 (SD =14.0). The quality of hypertension care process was high with mean score of 5.86 over 7 (SD = 1.4). However, only 30.1% (n = 50/166) had well-controlled hypertension. Comorbidity (OR = 2.3; 95% CI:1.0- 5.1, p =.039) and the quality of care (OR = 1.6; 95% CI: 1.1- 2.4, p = .024) were associated with higher odds of having hypertension control. Conclusion Tailored patient-centred primary care interventions that consider comorbidity could contribute to hypertension control in primary HCs in Rwanda.

Factors associated with severe malaria among patients under reference to district hospitals: A cross-sectional study in Rusizi District, Rwanda

Background Severe malaria is a key global public health issue, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, which accounts for over 80% of global malaria deaths. Rwanda has experienced about 11-fold annual increase in reported malaria cases since 2012 to 2016. Severe malaria accounted for 13,092 cases in 2015 to 17,248 cases in 2016. Objective To determine factors associated with severe malaria among patients under reference to Gihundwe and Mibilizi Hospitals. Methods A cross-sectional study that included 228 febrile patients diagnosed with malaria at Gihundwe and Mibilizi Hospitals was conducted. Data were collected from patients' files. Logistic regressions were computed to establish determinants of severe anemia. Odds ratio (OR), 95% confidence level (CI) and p-value were reported. Results The proportion of severe malaria was 64.03%. The multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that patients under five years (aOR = 8.169; 95%CI = 3.646- 18.304); being males (aOR = 2.539; 95%CI = 1.299-4.965); farmers (aOR = 2.757; 95%CI = 1.339-5.678) and limited access to health facilities (aOR = 2.740: 95%CI = 1.038-7.232) were the main factors associated with severe malaria. Conclusion Severe malaria was high with various associated factors. There is a need to strengthen malaria control and prevention interventions for young children, men and farmers. Furthermore, beside public health interventions, health facilities should be accessible to people residing in malaria endemic areas.

Provision and use of physical rehabilitation services for adults with disabilities in Rwanda: A descriptive study

Physical rehabilitation interventions address functional deficits caused by impairments that affect someone's performance. Whilst rehabilitation is important, it is assumed that these services are either minimal or nonexistent in low-resource settings. Our data expand on the data from the Situation Assessment of Rehabilitation in the Republic of Rwanda report to describe rehabilitation services and who access them at public and semiprivate facilities (primarily funded by the private sector).Objectives: This article describes the use of the outpatient physical rehabilitation services across nine health facilities, the characteristics of adults attending these health facilities and some of the facilitators and barriers they encounter when attending rehabilitation. Method: Data were collected between September and December 2018 from the heads of departments and adult patients attending outpatient rehabilitation services funded by the government, international nongovernmental organizations or faith-based organizations. Results: Two hundred and thirteen adults were recruited from nine facilities. There is a sixfold difference in the number of rehabilitation personnel between public and semiprivate hospitals in these facilities' catchment areas. However, most participants were recruited at public facilities (186 [87%]), primarily with physical disorders. Patients reported that family support (94%) was the most crucial facilitator for attending rehabilitation, whilst transportation cost (96%) was a significant barrier. Conclusion: Rehabilitation service availability for Rwandan adults with disabilities is limited. Whilst family support helps patients attend rehabilitation, transportation costs remain a significant barrier to people attending rehabilitation. Strategies to address these issues include developing triage protocols, training community health workers and families. Contribution: Data on rehabilitation service provision in Rwanda and most African countries are either non-existent or very limited. These data contain important information regarding the services provided and the people who used them across different health facilities (public versus private) and urban versus rural settings). To improve rehabilitation service provision, we first need to understand the current situation. These data are an important step to better understanding rehabilitation in Rwanda

Apoio institucional para agentes comunitários de saúde usando o programa de Atenção Integrada às Doenças Prevalentes na Infância em Ruanda / Institutional support to community health workers using integrated management of childhood illness program in Rwanda

O objetivo foi explorar o apoio e descrever a supervisão de agentes comunitários de saúde que implementam o programa de atenção integrada às doenças prevalentes na infância (AIDPI). Um desenho não experimental, exploratório, descritivo e quantitativo foi adotado neste estudo. Os dados foram coletados entre 305 participantes (30% da população) por meio de um questionário estruturado. Dupla digitação foi utilizada e os dados foram limpos e analisados usando o Statistics Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) 19. Em Ruanda, o apoio e supervisão são fornecidos pela instituição base e supervisores. Os agentes comunitários de saúde (ACS) frequentemente enfrentam escassez de medicamentos e equipamentos (63,3%) e 87,5% ficaram sem equipamentos, medicamentos e consumíveis, o que criou barreiras para a assistência das crianças doentes. Para melhorar o apoio institucional dado aos agentes comunitários de saúde, supervisão de apoio contínua e regular, além do fornecimento de suprimentos, é essencial.

The objective was to explore the support given to community health workers who use the integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) approach and describe the supervision given to them. A non-experimental, exploratory, descriptive, quantitative design was used for this study. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire; 305 were interviewed (30% sample). The data were double entered, cleaned, and analyzed using Statistics Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) 19. Support and supervision in Rwanda are provided by the base institution and by supervisors. CHWs often had a shortage of drugs and equipment (63.3%) and 87.5% have experienced run out of equipment, medicines, and consumables. This created barriers to caring for sick children. To improve institutional support for community health workers, regular and continuous supportive supervision and supplies are essential.

Determinants of Rulindo tea farmers' perception towards organic farming: a MASS::stepAIC() approach / Determinates da percepção dos cafeicultores de Rulindo em relação à agricultural orgânica: uma abordagem MASS::stepAIC

ABSTRACT: The current study determined the factors influencing the perception of tea farmers towards organic tea production in Rulindo District, Rwanda. This study used both qualitative and quantitative data from face to face interviews and questionnaires completed with 156 tea farmers and other key informants in the tea sector who were randomly selected in 2019. Using function step AIC in R's MASS package, the final multiple logistic regression model showed that generating income from tea production, participation in Umuganda, conveying messages at Ihangari, participation to agricultural shows, and receiving training from Farmers Field Schools (FFS) influenced farmers' perceptions towards organic tea production. Thus, the results of this study could be useful to stakeholders in Rwanda's tea sector, such as policymakers and decision-makers. They can act as a source of information when developing a more sustainable research-based tea extension program. Moreover, the results of this study can be used during the capacity building of farmers about organic tea production.

RESUMO: O objetivo deste estudo é determinar os fatores que influenciam a percepção dos produtores de chá em relação à produção de chá orgânico no distrito de Rulindo, Ruanda. Esta pesquisa utilizou dados qualitativos e quantitativos de entrevistas e questionários presenciais preenchidos com 156 cafeicultores e outros informantes-chave do setor de chá que foram alocados aleatoriamente em 2019. Usando a etapa de função AIC no pacote MASS de R, o modelo final de regressão logística múltipla mostrou que a participação em Umuganda, transmitindo mensagens na ihangari, discussões com um revendedor Agro nas aldeias, obtendo renda com as vendas de folhas de chá verde fresco, acesso dos cafeicultores à Internet, participação na exposição agrícola e treinamento em escolas agrícolas da Cooperativa Os cafeicultores tiveram à previsão da percepção da produção orgânica de chá. Assim, os resultados deste estudo podem ser úteis para as partes interessadas no setor de chá de Ruanda, como formuladores de políticas e tomadores de decisão. Eles podem atuar como fonte de informação ao desenvolver um programa de extensão do chá mais sustentável, baseado em pesquisa. Além disso, os resultados deste estudo podem ser utilizados durante a capacitação dos agricultores sobre o cultivo de chá orgânico.

A multi-institutional, cross-sectional study on disclosure of HIV status to sexual partner(s) and associated factors among people living with HIV/AIDS attending selected hospitals in Kigali, Rwanda

Background: In Sub-Saharan Africa, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) remains a public health problem. There is need for evidence-based interventions to curb new infections. HIV status disclosure, especially to sexual partner(s) remains a critical step towards reducing viral transmission across sexual partners.Methods: A hospital-based cross-sectional study, conducted at HIV clinics of three selected hospitals. Systematic random sampling was employed to sample 384 people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWH). A pre-tested self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data.Results: Of the participants, 66% of the participants reported HIV positive status disclosure, with only 46% of these having disclosed to their sexual partner. Logistic regression analysis identified age (p value 0.035; AOR 0.94), being satisfied with counselling (p value 0.017; AOR 0.24), gender (p value 0.030; AOR 5.51) and education (p value 0.041; AOR 2.14) as factors associated with having disclosed HIV status. Being younger, satisfaction with counselling, being female and having attained at least secondary education were all associated with higher odds of HIV status disclosure.Conclusions: Based on the findings of the current study, it can be concluded that there is need to improve rates of HIV status disclosure among PLWH in Kigali, Rwanda. The current study findings have provided baseline information for the local health authorities, health care providers, policy makers and other scholars working in HIV epidemic control. The local health authorities can use this as a guide to develop a programme aimed to address the issue of non-disclosure of HIV status in Kigali City and hence help control the incessant spread of HIV infection.

Socio-demographic determinants of diarrhoeal diseases among under five years old children in Rwanda

Background Diarrhoeal disease is a worldwide public health issue and remains a major cause of mortality and morbidity in children under five years old. Low and middle income countries (LMIC) of Africa and part of Asia are more affected by diarrhoeal diseases. Objectives To measure the prevalence of Diarrhoeal Diseases and to assess Socio-demographic determinants among Under Five Years Old Children in Rwanda. Methods A cross-sectional design was used. Secondary data analysis was carried out on a sample of 7474 drawn from Rwanda Demographic and Health Survey (RDHS). RDHS used multistage sampling technique. Results After running multiple logistic regression, Sociodemographic determinants associated with diarrhoeal included age of children, wealth index category, mother education, husband/partner education, types of place of residence (P-Value) Conclusion The results of the study showed that diarrhoeal remains an important health issue in Rwanda. Occurrence of diarrhoeal was statistically associated with child age, wealth index, education of parents, types of place of residence.

Environmental and nutritional determinants of diarrhoea disease among children under five years in Rwanda: A secondary data analysis of the Rwanda demographic and health survey 2014-15

Background Diarrhoea remains one of the leading of causes of deaths in children under five years old globally. Children under five years are more vulnerable to diarrhea especially those from low and middle countries. The aim of this study was to explore the environmental and nuttitional factors associated with diarrhea among children underfive years in Rwanda. Methods A secondary data analysis of the Rwanda Demographic and Heralth Survey 2014-2015 (RDHS 2014-2015) was used. A total sample of 7,558 children under five years old was included. The data were analysed using Stata 13. Bivariate with Chi-square test and multivariable logistic regression analysis were performed to assess the relashionship of factors associsted with diarreha. A 95% confidence interval and a significance level of 0.05 were set. Results Two environmental factors (Source of drinking water and shared toilets facilities with other households) were associated with child diarrhea. Pvalues: 0.029, OR:1.79, CI [1.06-3.01]; 0.019, OR:1.26, CI: [1.04-1.53] respectively. None of the selected nutritional factors was associated with childhood diarrhea. Conclusion Based on the findings, drinking borehole water and shared toilet facilities were associated with diarrhea. The study therefore recommends the provision of potable water and supporting/enabling the households to own toilets.

Environmental Justice and Women Empowerment in Nyungwe National Park (Rwanda): Case Study of Kitabi Women Handcrafts Cooperative

In the framework of the community participation in conservation in Rwanda, a women handcraft cooperative was established in 2011 in the surrounding of Nyungwe National Park in Kitabi sector and Nyamagabe District. It aimed to empower economically and socially wives of former hunters who were themselves relying on natural resources and involved in harvesting different resources in park for making handcraft products. The empowerment was intended to reduce the reliance to natural resources and to contribute to the protection of the park. The objective of the study was to investigate and examine women’s experiences about their empowerment through environmental justice, in terms of distributive and procedural justice and challenges faced by women. In doing so, participants were purposively selected in women handicraft cooperative and in administration bodies. With regards to data collection and analysis, semi-structured interviews and content analysis were used. The findings showed that women are socially and economically empowered. In terms of economic empowerment, access to financial loans, savings, employment and income generating projects are the major indicators of the empowerment. Improved capacity building and family relations are major concerns of social handcraft cooperative members. Regarding the participation of women in decision-making process, the findings are controversial. However, it is still limited because of the dominance of top-down approach that does not consider enough women’s voices and suggestions in decision making. Cooperative women members perceive and consider the process of communication and decision-making as passive because they are almost absent in the monitoring and evaluation processes. The participation of the community members including women only appears through meetings with or without elected representatives. The process of women empowerment is still limited by some challenges such as crop raiding, complicated and slow compensation process, high interest rate and slow process of loan and inadequate communication. The partnership approach is then recommended so as to consider women’s needs and voices in the implementation of natural resources conservation policies.

Molecular Detection of Ugandan Passiflora Virus Infecting Passionfruit (Passiflora edulis sims) in Rwanda

The study aimed at identifying the pathogen associated with passionfruit woodiness disease in Rwanda. Field work was conducted in Rwanda while, laboratory aspects were carried out in Biosciences for eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute Hub, Nairobi, Kenya. Duration of the study was from September 2012 to May 2013. Two hundred and one leaf samples exhibiting virus-like symptoms were collected from farmer’s fields in Nyamagabe, Ngororero and Gicumbi district found in South, West and North provinces of Rwanda, respectively. Virus detection was done using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Virus-like symptoms observed in the field included; leaf mosaic, crinkle, distortion, fruit woodiness and malformations. Ugandan passiflora virus was detected in 70% of the positive samples and other unidentified potyviruses. The incidence of virus infection was highest in North at 45.8% and lowest in West province at 18.7%. Partial amino acid sequences of the coat protein of 169 residues were used to determine the identity of the associated virus. Sequences obtained were highly similar and displayed features typical of potyviruses with 93-100% identity. Comparisons of these sequences with those of other existing potyviruses indicated highest identity (94-100%) to Ugandan passiflora virus isolates from Uganda. Sequences of four Rwandan isolates are deposited in Genbank: isolate RW10 (Accession No. MK132862), RW23 (MK132863), RW104 (MK132864) and RW140 (MK132865). This study confirms presence of the Ugandan passiflora virus in the country. This necessitates the need for production and use of virus-free planting materials, development of virus resistant genotypes and adoption of efficient seed certification systems.

Clinical Chemistry Reference Intervals in a Rwandan Population.

Aim: To establish clinical chemistry reference intervals for the Rwandan population. Study Design: A population-based cross-sectional study. Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out in three blood transfusion centres: Buhanda, Ruhango and Nyaruteja, between August and December 2011. Methods: Serum clinical chemistry tests were performed on a Cobas C311 automated chemistry analyzer. Results: Results of 187 subjects (age range: 17-54 years) presented as median, with 2.5th-97.5th percentiles (95% reference interval) in brackets are as follows: For males: alanine aminotransferase: 25 (12-43) U/L; aspartate aminotransferase: 29 (16-47) U/L; gamma-glutamyl transferase: 22 (9-77) U/L; total bilirubin: 0.6 (0.2-1.7) mg/dL; direct bilirubin: 0.2 (0.1-0.4) mg/dL; creatinine: 0.8 (0.5-1.1) mg/dL; uric acid: 5 (3-7) mg/dL. For males and females: alkaline phosphatase: 71 (27-122) U/L; amylase: 144 (50-235) U/L; lactate dehydrogenase: 176 (114-237) U/L; triglycerides: 82 (32-172) mg/dL; highdensity lipoprotein: 48 (29-86) mg/dL; glucose: 87 (70-114) mg/dL; total protein: 7.6 (6.5- 8.5) g/dL; albumin: 4.4 (3.4-5.4) g/dL; sodium: 142 (137-147) mmol/L; potassium: 4.1 (3.3-5.0) mmol/L; chloride: 106 (100-112) mmol/L; phosphate: 1.16 (0.87-1.49) mmol/L. Conclusion: The clinical chemistry reference values are in agreement with those reported in other African studies, with variations.

Haematological Values at Moderate Altitude in a Low-Income Population.

Aim: To illustrate haematological adaptation to moderate altitude in Rwanda. Study Design: A population-based cross-sectional study. Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out at moderate altitude (1,649-1,768 m) among students of the National University of Rwanda and blood donors from Buhanda, Ruhango and Nyaruteja centres, from August to December 2011. Methods: Healthy volunteers (238 males and 106 females, age range: 18-40 years) were recruited in the study. Complete blood count was performed on a Coulter AcT 5diff and for some samples on a Sysmex KX-21N automated haematology analyzer. Results: Results (mean ± SD) were: erythrocyte count: males: 5.28 ± 0.53 X 1012/L, females: 4.72 ± 0.63 X 1012/L; haemoglobin concentration: males: 160 ± 16 g/L, females: 140 ± 18 g/L; haematocrit: males: 45 ± 4 %, females: 40 ± 5 %. The differential leukocyte count showed eosinophilia (4%) and increased lymphocytes (44%). Conclusion: The values for erythrocyte count, haemoglobin concentration, haematocrit, erythrocyte indices and leukocyte count are comparable to sea level values. The fact that haemoglobin concentration is not low as is the case in low-income populations living at sea level can be attributed to adaptation to moderate altitude.