Efecto de la retroalimentación visual sobre la velocidad de la marcha después de un accidente cerebrovascular: diseño de caso único / Effects of Visual Feedback on Walking Speed for Stroke Patients: Single-case Design

Introducción. La recuperación de la marcha es uno de los principales objetivos en rehabilitación después de un ACV. Basados en los principios de aprendizaje motor, se han desarrollado nuevas estrategias en neurorrehabilitación basadas en la práctica repetitiva, orientada a la tarea y la retroalimentación. Esto último ha demostrado ser una de las variables clave para el entrenamiento, por su fácil obtención y manipulación. Sin embargo, aún no existen estudios concluyentes que permitan identificar el efecto real de esta variable y su influencia en la recuperación y el desempeño funcional de la marcha. Objetivo. Determinar el efecto de la retroalimentación visual sobre la velocidad de la marcha después de un accidente cerebrovascular en adultos con estadios subagudos y crónicos. Metodología. Diseño de caso único de línea de base múltiple, aleatorio no concurrente de cuatro participantes. Se evaluó la velocidad de la marcha determinando las diferencias en el nivel, la tendencia, la estabilidad de los datos y la no superposición de datos mediante el análisis visual basado en la documentación técnica para diseños de caso único de la What Works Clearinghouse. Resultados. Cuatro participantes con rango de edad de 19 a 73 años fueron incluidos en el estudio. El cambio en el nivel para todos los participantes demostró un incremento en los valores de la velocidad de la marcha después de la introducción de la intervención (media: 0.76 m/s). El análisis visual de la tendencia estimó aceleración para la línea de intervención para tres participantes. Los datos en la fase de base e intervención cumplieron el criterio de estabilidad medido con el método de banda de dos desviaciones estándar (media: 0.05 m/s); los patrones de cambio demostraron efecto inmediato con mejoría gradual durante la intervención para los participantes 1, 3 y 4. El porcentaje de no superposición de datos mostró efectividad de la intervención para tres de los participantes (PND >91.67%). Conclusiones. Los hallazgos presentados en este estudio representan un aporte científico que respalda la pertinencia del uso y aplicación de los principios de aprendizaje motor para el desarrollo de nuevas estrategias en rehabilitación motora. Sin embargo, este estudio constituye un primer paso para realizar estudios más robustos que incluyan replicación de las fases en el estudio y la evaluación del seguimiento para determinar la permanencia de los efectos a largo plazo.

Introduction. Gait recovery is one of the main goals in post-stroke rehabilitation. Based on the principles of motor learning, new strategies have been developed in neurorehabilitation based on repetitive, task-oriented practice, and feedback. The latter has proven to be one of the most critical variables for training, because it is easy to obtain and manipulate. However, there are still no conclusive studies to identify the real effect of this variable and its influence on recovery and functional gait performance. Objective. To determine the effect of visual feedback on gait speed after stroke in adults with subacute and chronic stages.Methodology. Single-case, multiple baseline, non-concurrent randomized, and four-participant design. Gait velocity was assessed by determining differences in level, trend, data stability, and nonoverlapping data using visual analysis based on technical documentation for single-case designs from the What Works Clearinghouse.Results. Four participants ranging in age from 19 to 73 years were included in the study. The change in level for all participants demonstrated an increase in gait velocity values after the introduction of the intervention (mean: 0.76 m/s). Visual trend analysis estimated acceleration for the intervention line for three participants. The data in the baseline and intervention phase met the stability criterion measured with the two standard deviation band method (mean: 0.05 m/s); patterns of change demonstrated immediate effect with gradual improvement during the intervention for participants 1, 3, and 4. The percentage of nonoverlapping data showed effective-ness of the intervention for three of the participants (PND >91.67%).Conclusions. The findings presented in this study represent a scientific contribution that supports the relevance of the use and application of motor learning principles for the development of new strategies in motor rehabilitation. However, this study constitutes a first step towards more robust studies that include replication of the phases in the study and follow-up evaluation to determine the permanence of long-term effects.

Micro- and macro-level economic implications of digital addictions: A case study

Introduction: Technology has significantly transformed how we live our lives. The Internet has made life easier by making knowledge more accessible to all and connecting individuals all over the world. However, it has also caused many people to spend far too much time in front of the computer, to the point that it has become the center of their existence. Materials and Methods: A case of a 20-year-old male student of Bachelor of Engineering, who belongs to the middle socio-economic status of a rural area, is digitally addicted, and getting treated in a tertiary hospital in Karnataka, India. Discussion and conclusion: Digital addiction can cause various psychological issues, particularly anxiety, depression, insomnia, and behavioral issues. It further creates an economic crisis in the family of a digital addict as well as for the nation. Therefore, to address the implications of digital addiction, the country must devote resources towards awareness, prevention, and intervention in the area of digital addiction.

Adaptive single case design (ASCD): a model for education, training, and assessment / Estudo de caso único adaptado (ASCD): um modelo para educação, treinamento e avaliação

Aims: single case designs (SCDs) can help us understand change in learning-related variables, such as knowledge and skill, at the level of an individual learner, at the level of a team or group of learners, or at the level of a situation or system. Adaptive single case design (ASCD) is a new model that integrates (i.) elements of methods of education, training, and assessment that, through research methods other than SCDs, have received solid empirical evidence in the research literature and (ii.) principles of SCDs that can facilitate the integration of research in everyday practice. The rationale behind ASCD is to allow rapid evidence-based decision making in the practice of education, training, and assessment, at the unit of analysis ­ individual, group, team, situation, or system ­ that is considered appropriate in the context at hand. Method: an ASCD algorithm is introduced and discussed in the context of change at the level of the individual, change in a group or team, and change in a situation or system. Results: ASCD can be used to understand change at each of the previously mentioned units of analysis at any number of units including a single unit (one individual, one team, or one situation or system), and this change can be used for research purposes as well. Conclusion: ASCD enables both evidence-based practical decision making and research without stringent demands on the number of learners, groups, teams, situations, or systems.

Objetivos: estudos de caso único podem nos ajudar a entender a mudança nas variáveis relacionadas ao aprendizado, como conhecimento e habilidade, no nível de um aluno individual, no nível de uma equipe ou grupo de alunos, ou no nível de uma situação ou sistema. O Estudo adaptativo de caso único (ASCD) é um novo modelo que integra (i.) elementos de métodos de educação, treinamento e avaliação que, por meio de métodos de pesquisa que não sejam estudos de caso único, receberam evidências empíricas sólidas na literatura de pesquisa e (ii.) princípios de estudos de caso único, que podem facilitar a integração da pesquisa na prática cotidiana. A lógica por trás do ASCD é permitir a rápida tomada de decisão baseada em evidências na prática da educação, treinamento e avaliação, na unidade de análise ­ individual, grupo, equipe, situação ou sistema ­ que é considerada apropriada no contexto em questão. Método: um algoritmo ASCD é introduzido e discutido no contexto de mudança no nível do indivíduo, mudança em um grupo ou equipe e mudança em uma situação ou sistema. Resultados: o ASCD pode ser usado para entender a mudança em cada uma das unidades de análise mencionadas anteriormente em qualquer número de unidades, incluindo uma única unidade (um indivíduo, uma equipe ou uma situação ou sistema), e para fins de pesquisa. Conclusão: o ASCD permite a a pesquisa e a tomada de decisão prática baseada em evidências, sem demandas rigorosas sobre o número de alunos, grupos, equipes, situações ou sistemas.

Pain and physical activity for one individual: a comparison of models / Dor e atividade física para um indivíduo: uma comparação de modelos

Aims: there is increasing awareness that for effective patient care we need more than only randomized controlled trials with groups of participants and that carefully collected single case (N = 1) data have several important advantages over traditional group-level studies. With the advance of technology, collecting relevant data from a single case is becoming easier by the day, and this offers tremendous opportunities for understanding how behaviors displayed by an individual can be influenced by one or several key variables. For example, how pain experienced influences the amount of time spent on physical exercise. Method: using publicly available observational single case data, five models are compared: a classical ordinary least squares (OLS) linear regression model; a dynamic regression model (DRM); a two-level random-intercepts model (2LRI); a continuous covariate first-order autoregressive correlation model (CAR1); and an ordinary least squares model with time trend (OLST). These models are compared in terms of overall model fit statistics, estimates of the relation between physical activity (response variable of interest) and pain (covariate of interest), and residual statistics. Results: 2LRI outperforms all other models on both overall model fit and residual statistics, and provides covariate estimates that are in between the relative extremes provided by other models. CAR1 and OLST demonstrate an almost identical performance and one that is substantially better than OLS ­ which performs worst ­ and DRM. Conclusion: for observational single case data, DRM, CAR1, OLST, and 2LRI account for the serial correlation that is typically present in single case data in somewhat different ways under somewhat different assumptions, and all perform better than OLS. Implications of these findings for observational, quasi-experimental, and experimental single case studies are discussed.

Objetivos: há uma crescente conscientização de que, para um atendimento eficaz ao paciente, precisamos de mais do que apenas ensaios clínicos randomizados com grupos de participantes e que os dados de caso único cuidadosamente coletados (N = 1) têm várias vantagens importantes sobre os estudos tradicionais em nível de grupo. Com o avanço da tecnologia, coletar dados relevantes de um único caso está se tornando mais fácil a cada dia, e isso oferece enormes oportunidades para entender como os comportamentos exibidos por um indivíduo podem ser influenciados por uma ou várias variáveis-chave. Por exemplo, como a dor experimentada influencia a quantidade de tempo gasto no exercício físico. Método: usando dados de caso único observacionais disponíveis publicamente, cinco modelos são comparados: um modelo clássico de regressão linear de mínimos quadrados ordinários (OLS); um modelo de regressão dinâmica (DRM); um modelo de interceptações aleatórias de dois níveis (2LRI); um modelo de correlação autorregressiva de primeira ordem covariável contínua (CAR1); e um modelo ordinário de mínimos quadrados com tendência temporal (OLST). Esses modelos são comparados em termos de estatísticas gerais de ajuste do modelo, estimativas da relação entre atividade física (variável de resposta de interesse) e dor (covariável de interesse) e estatísticas residuais. Resultados: o 2LRI supera todos os outros modelos tanto no ajuste geral do modelo quanto nas estatísticas residuais e fornece estimativas de covariáveis que estão entre os extremos relativos fornecidos por outros modelos. CAR1 e OLST demonstram um desempenho quase idêntico e substancialmente melhor que o OLS, que apresenta o pior desempenho, e o DRM. Conclusão: para dados observacionais de caso único, DRM, CAR1, OLST e 2LRI são responsáveis pela correlação seriada que normalmente está presente em dados de caso único de maneira um pouco diferentes sob suposições um pouco diversas, e todos têm um desempenho melhor que o OLS. Implicações dessas descobertas para estudos de caso único observacionais, quase-experimentais e experimentais são discutidas.

Small numbers are an opportunity, not a problem / Números pequenos são uma oportunidade, não um problema

Aims: outcomes of research in education and training are partly a function of the context in which that study takes place, the questions we ask, and what is feasible. Many questions are about learning, which involves repeated measurements in a particular time window, and the practical context is usually such that offering an intervention to some but not to all learners does not make sense or is unethical. For quality assurance and other purposes, education and training centers may have very locally oriented questions that they seek to answer, such as whether an intervention can be considered effective in their context of small numbers of learners. While the rationale behind the design and outcomes of this kind of studies may be of interest to a much wider community, for example to study the transferability of findings to other contexts, people are often discouraged to report on the outcomes of such studies at conferences or in educational research journals. The aim of this paper is to counter that discouragement and instead encourage people to see small numbers as an opportunity instead of as a problem. Method: a worked example of a parametric and a non-parametric method for this type of situation, using simulated data in the zero-cost Open Source statistical program R version 4.0.5. Results: contrary to the non-parametric method, the parametric method can provide estimates of intervention effectiveness for the individual participant, account for trends in different phases of a study. However, the non-parametric method provides a solution in several situations where the parametric method should be used. Conclusion: Given the costs of research, the lessons to be learned from research, and statistical methods available, small numbers should be considered an opportunity, not a problem.

Objetivo: os resultados da pesquisa em educação e treinamento são, em parte, uma função do contexto em que esse estudo ocorre, das perguntas que fazemos e do que é viável. Muitas perguntas são sobre a aprendizagem, que envolve medições repetidas em uma janela de tempo específica, e o contexto prático, geralmente, é tal, que oferecer uma intervenção a alguns, mas não a todos os alunos, não faz sentido ou é antiético. Para garantia de qualidade e outros propósitos, os centros de educação e treinamento podem ter perguntas orientadas localmente que procuram responder, como, por exemplo, se uma intervenção pode ser considerada eficaz em seu contexto de pequeno número de alunos. Embora a justificativa por trás do projeto e dos resultados deste tipo de estudos possa ser do interesse de uma comunidade muito mais ampla, por exemplo, para estudar a possibilidade de transferência de resultados para outros contextos, as pessoas são frequentemente desencorajadas a relatar os resultados de tais estudos em conferências ou em revistas de pesquisa educacional. O objetivo deste artigo é combater esse desânimo e, em vez disso, incentivar as pessoas a verem os pequenos números como uma oportunidade em vez de um problema. Método: realizado um exemplo de método paramétrico e não paramétrico para este tipo de situação, utilizando dados simulados no programa estatístico Open Source R versão 4.0.5 de custo zero. Resultados: ao contrário do método não paramétrico, o método paramétrico pode fornecer estimativas da eficácia da intervenção para o participante individual, levando em conta as tendências em diferentes fases de um estudo. No entanto, o método não paramétrico fornece uma solução em várias situações, onde o método paramétrico deve ser usado. Conclusão: dados os custos da pesquisa, as lições a serem aprendidas com a pesquisa e os métodos estatísticos disponíveis, pequenos números devem ser considerados uma oportunidade, não um problema.

Psychodynamic Profile in an Early Dropout Case: Comparing Therapist's and External Judges' perspectives

INTRODUCTION: contemporary psychodynamic therapy research supports combining clinical judgment with empirical evidences. Recent studies suggest that systematically analyzing single cases may contribute to such efforts. Also, current criteria for evidence-based case studies recommend different perspectives on therapeutic process and outcome, such as therapist's and external judges' ratings. Finally, client's dropout conforms a challenge for psychotherapy research. AIMS & METHODS: as part of a SPR Small Research Grant, this study analyzed and compared the psychodynamic profile proposed both by therapist and two external judges, for the same case of early dropout from focused psychodynamic psychotherapy, consisting of two diagnostic interviews and five subsequent sessions, in a patient with an emotional disorder. Being blind to the rating process of the counterpart, Operationalized Psychodynamic Diagnosis (OPD-2) was used by therapist and judges to generate a psychodynamic profile including five therapeutic foci. External judges rating was achieved through consensus, following CQR's guidelines. RESULTS & DISCUSSION: similarities and differences among therapist's and judges' psychodynamic profiles were found. Result's contributions to the understanding of case's early dropout are discussed, along with OPD-2's usefulness for psychodynamic practice-oriented research.(AU)

O processo psicoterapêutico psicodinâmico de um menino com sintomas internalizantes: uma análise com base no Child Psychotherapy Q-Set / The psychodynamic psychotherapeutic process of a boy with internalizing symptoms: an analysis based on the Child Psychotherapy Q-Set / El proceso psicoterapéutico psicodinámico de un niño con síntomas de internalización: un análisis con base en el Child Psychotherapy Q-Set

Problemas internalizantes são frequentes em crianças, mas os ingredientes ativos que tornam uma psicoterapia efetiva são ainda pobremente compreendidos. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar o processo terapêutico psicodinâmico de um menino em idade escolar que apresentava sintomas internalizantes, cujo tratamento foi interrompido após 22 meses. Os participantes foram o paciente e sua terapeuta. O Child Psychotherapy Q-Set foi utilizado para analisar o processo terapêutico. Os resultados mostraram as características da relação terapeuta-paciente e suas transformações. Fatores como conflitos familiares, aliança terapêutica com os pais, limitação da capacidade de mentalização do menino, contratransferência, habilidades e ajustamento da terapeuta ao paciente tiveram impacto no processo terapêutico, contribuindo para o desfecho observado. Para elucidar questões em aberto acerca da efetividade e mecanismos de mudança da psicoterapia psicodinâmica, e para estabelecimento de uma base de evidências consistente, é imprescindível que se conheça, de fato, o que ocorre e como ocorre no setting clínico.

Internalizing problems are frequent in children, but the active ingredients that make a psychotherapy effective are still poorly understood. This study aimed to analyze the psychodynamic therapeutic process of a school-age boy who presented internalizing symptoms, whose treatment was interrupted after 22 months. Participants were the patient and the therapist. The Child Psychotherapy Q-Set was used to analyze the therapeutic process. The results showed the characteristics of the therapist-patient relationship and its transformations. Factors such as family conflicts, therapeutic alliance with the parents, limitation to the ability to mentor the boy, countertransference, skills, and adjustment of the therapist to the patient impacted the therapeutic process, contributing to the observed outcome. In order to clarify the questions about the effectiveness and mechanisms of change in psychodynamic psychotherapy, and for the establishment of a consistent base of evidence, it is essential to know, in fact, what happens and how it happens in the clinical setting.

Problemas de internalización son frecuentes en niños, pero los ingredientes activos que hacen que una psicoterapia sea efectiva todavía son pobremente comprendidos. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar el proceso terapéutico psicodinámico de un niño en edad escolar que presentaba síntomas de internalización y cuyo tratamiento fue interrumpido después de 22 meses. Los participantes fueron el paciente y su terapeuta. El Child Psychotherapy Q-Set fue utilizado para analizar el proceso terapéutico. Los resultados mostraron las características de la relación terapeuta-paciente y sus transformaciones. Factores como conflictos familiares, alianza terapéutica con los padres, limitación de la capacidad de mentalización del niño, contratransferencia, habilidades y ajustamiento de la terapeuta al paciente tuvieron impacto en el proceso terapéutico, contribuyendo para el desenlace observado. Para elucidar cuestiones en abierto acerca de la efectividad y de los mecanismos de cambio de la psicoterapia psicodinámica, y para el establecimiento de una base de evidencias consistente, es imprescindible que se sepa, de hecho, qué ocurre y cómo ocurre el setting clínico.

Statistics for N = 1: a non-parametric Bayesian approach / Estatística para N = 1: uma abordagem Bayesiana não paramétrica

Research in education is often associated with comparing group averages and linear relations in sufficiently large samples and evidence-based practice is about using the outcomes of that research in the practice of education. However, there are questions that are important for the practice of education that cannot really be addressed by comparisons of group averages and linear relations, no matter how large the samples. Besides, different types of constraints including logistic, financial, and ethical ones may make larger-sample research unfeasible or at least questionable. What has remained less known in many fields is that there are study designs and statistical methods for research involving small samples or even individuals that allow us to address questions of importance for the practice of education. This article discusses one type of such situations and provides a simple coherent statistical approach that provides point and interval estimates of differences of interest regardless of the type of the outcome variable and that is of use in other types of studies involving large samples, small samples, and single individuals.

A pesquisa em educação é frequentemente associada à comparação de médias de grupo e relações lineares em amostras suficientemente grandes, e a prática baseada em evidências trata do uso dos resultados dessa pesquisa na prática educacional. No entanto, há questões importantes para a prática da educação que não podem ser realmente abordadas por comparações de médias de grupo e relações lineares, por maiores que sejam as amostras. Além disso, diferentes tipos de restrições, incluindo as logísticas, financeiras e éticas, podem tornar a pesquisa com amostras maiores inviável ou, pelo menos, questionável. O que tem ficado menos conhecido em muitos campos é que existem desenhos de estudos e métodos estatísticos para pesquisas envolvendo pequenas amostras ou mesmo indivíduos que nos permitem abordar questões de importância para a prática da educação. Este artigo discute um tipo de tais situações e fornece uma abordagem estatística coerente simples que fornece estimativas de ponto e intervalo de diferenças de interesse, independentemente do tipo de variável de resultado e que é útil em outros tipos de estudos envolvendo grandes amostras, pequenas amostras, e indivíduos solteiros.

Focos Terapéuticos en un Caso de Abandono Temprano: Perspectivas del Terapeuta y de Jueces Externos / Therapeutic Foci in an Early Dropout Case: Therapist's and External Judges' Perspectives

Introducción: es necesario mayor estudio de la experiencia de abandono terapéutico temprano. Indagar sistemáticamente casos únicos puede conformar una respuesta orgánica a este desafío. Objetivos y métodos: se analizó y comparó la evolución de focos terapéuticos, planteados por el terapeuta tratante y por dos juezas externas, para un caso de abandono temprano de psicoterapia psicodinámica focalizada de un trastorno emocional. Ciegos a la codificación de la contraparte, terapeuta y juezas utilizaron el Diagnóstico Psicodinámico Operacionalizado-2 (OPD-2) para generar un perfil psicodinámico y establecer focos de tratamiento. Para cada foco, aplicaron la Escala de Presencia de Foco y la Escala de Cambio Estructural de Heidelberg. Resultados y discusión: se observaron puntos de convergencia y divergencia entre las perspectivas de terapeuta y juezas externas. Se discute la utilidad de dichos puntos para la comprensión del abandono temprano del paciente, así como las implicancias del OPD-2 como herramienta de investigación orientada a la práctica

Introduction: more study on the experience of therapeutic early dropout is needed. The systematic study of psychodynamic single cases can conform an organic response to this challenge. Aims & Methods: therapeutic foci's evolution, proposed by both treating therapist and two external judges, for the same early dropout case of a focused psychodynamic psychotherapy for an emotional disorder, were analyzed and compared. Blind to the counterpart's rating process, therapist and judges employed Operationalized Psychodynamic Diagnosis (OPD-2) in order to generate a psychodynamic profile and establish therapeutic foci. For each focus, they applied the Focus Presence Scale and the Heidelberg Structural Change Scale. Results & Discussion: specific convergences' and discrepancies' points between therapist's and judges' perspectives were observed. Such points' usefulness for the understanding of patient's early dropout, together with OPD-2' implications as a practice-oriented research tool, are discussed

Estruturas de Interação na Psicoterapia Psicodinâmica de uma Menina com Transtorno de Adaptação / Estructuras de Interacción en la Psicoterapia Psicodinámica de una Niña con Trastorno Adaptativo / Interaction Structures in the Psychodynamic Psychotherapy of a Girl Diagnosed with Adjustment Disorder

Resumo A literatura científica aponta a necessidade de estudos com foco no processo e nos resultados da psicoterapia psicodinâmica de crianças. Além disso, o relacionamento e as estruturas de interação entre terapeuta e paciente têm sido enfatizadas como importante fator de mudança terapêutica. O objetivo desse estudo foi analisar as estruturas de interação na psicoterapia psicodinâmica de uma criança com transtorno de adaptação. Realizou-se um estudo descritivo, longitudinal, baseado no procedimento de estudo de caso sistemático. Os participantes foram uma menina de oito anos e sua terapeuta. As 40 sessões de psicoterapia foram analisadas através do Child Psychotherapy Q-Set (CPQ). Foram identificadas cinco estruturas de interação, com base na análise fatorial de componentes principais com rotação Varimax. Elas descrevem diferentes padrões de interação, com utilização de abordagens suportivas, diretivas e interpretativas. A importância das estruturas de interação como vetor de mudança, variáveis do terapeuta e uma tendência de abordagens integrativas na psicoterapia de crianças foram discutidas.

Resumen La literatura científica indica la necesidad de estudios con foco en el proceso y en los resultados de psicoterapia psicodinámica de niños. Además, la relación y las estructuras de interacción entre terapeuta y paciente se han enfatizado como un importante factor de cambio terapéutico. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar las estructuras de interacción en la psicoterapia psicodinámica de una niña con trastorno de adaptación. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo, longitudinal basado en lo método de estudio sistemático de casos. Los participantes fueron una niña de ocho años y su terapeuta. Las Cuarenta sesiones de psicoterapia fueran analizadas mediante el Child Psychotherapy Q-Set (CPQ). Fueran identificadas cinco estructuras de interacción, con base en el análisis factorial de componentes principales con rotación Varimax. Estas describen diferentes patrones de interacción, con utilización de enfoques suportivos, directivos e interpretativos. La importancia de las estructuras de interacción como un vector de cambio, las variables del terapeuta y la tendencia de los enfoques de integración en psicoterapia de niños fueron discutidos.

Abstract The scientific literature indicates the need for studies focusing on the process and outcomes of child psychodynamic psychotherapy. In addition, the relationship and the interaction structures between therapist and patient have been emphasized as an important factor of therapeutic change. The aim of this study was to analyze interaction structures in the psychodynamic psychotherapy of a child with adjustment disorder. We conducted a descriptive, longitudinal study based on the systematic case study procedure. The participants were an 8-year-old girl and her therapist. Forty psychotherapy sessions were analyzed using the Child Psychotherapy Q-Set (CPQ). Five interaction structures were identified on the basis of factor analysis of main components with varimax rotation. They describe different patterns of interaction, using supportive, directive, and interpretive approaches. The importance of interaction structures as a vector of change, therapist variables, and the trend toward integrative approaches in child psychotherapy are discussed.

Caso Vera: intervenções do psicoterapeuta e aliança terapêutica / Vera case: psychotherapist interventions and therapeutic alliance / Caso Vera: el rol del psicoterapeuta e la alianza de trabajo

Entre os fatores que contribuem para o êxito das psicoterapias estão associados aspectos do psicoterapeuta, do paciente e da qualidade da relação entre ambos. Esta pesquisa objetivou avaliar um processo breve psicodinâmico relacionando dois destes aspectos, as intervenções verbais da psicoterapeuta e a aliança terapêutica estabelecida entre paciente e psicoterapeuta. Empregou-se estudo de caso único e instrumentos clínicos para avaliar as variáveis propostas: Classificação das Intervenções Terapêuticas (IT) e Inventário de Aliança de Trabalho - versão do observador (Working Alliance Inventory Short - observer version - WAI-S-O). Os resultados revelaram que a estratégia interventiva adotada pela psicoterapeuta foi predominantemente expressiva e houve aumento nas médias da aliança terapêutica da fase inicial para as demais. Pode-se perceber, também, que as intervenções foram modeladas segundo as características inerentes às diferentes fases do processo terapêutico, em especial a etapa de término, onde o conflito central de relacionamento da paciente, o medo de ser abandonada, pode ser reeditado e elaborado. Limitações do estudo são apontadas.

Variables relating to the therapist, the patient and the quality of their relationship are associated with factors that contribute to the success of the psychotherapy. The main goal of this study was to evaluate a brief psychodynamic psychotherapy process and to establish a relation between two of these aspects: the therapist's verbal interventions and the therapeutic alliance. A single-subject case study was used as well as clinical instruments to evaluate the proposed variables: Therapeutic Interventions Classification (TI) and the Working Alliance Inventory Short - Observer version (WAI-S-O). The results pointed to the therapist's intervention strategy, predominantly expressive, and an increase in the average of the therapeutic alliance from the initial phase through the other phases. Moreover, the interventions were also modulated by the inherent characteristics of the different phases of the therapeutic process, in particular the final stage, where the central conflict of the patient relationship, the fear of being abandoned, could be reedited and elaborated. Limitations of the study are indicated.

Variables del terapeuta, del paciente y de la cualidad de la relación entre ambos están asociadas con los factores que contribuyen para el éxito de las psicoterapias. Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo evaluar un proceso breve psicodinámico y establecer una relación entre las intervenciones verbales de la psicoterapeuta y la alianza entre psicoterapeuta y paciente. Se utilizó estudio de caso único y instrumentos clínicos para evaluar las variables propuestas: Clasificación de las Intervenciones Terapéuticas (IT); Tema Central de Conflictos en los Relacionamientos (Core Conflictual Relationship Theme - CCRT); y Inventario de la Alianza de Trabajo - versión del observador (Working Alliance Inventory Short - observer version - WAI-S-O). Los resultados demonstran que la estrategia de las intervenciones usadas por la psicoterapeuta, en su mayor parte expresivas, contr ibuyó para el desarrollo de la alianza terapéutica, mejora del patrón relacional y disminución de los problemas relacionados a la queja. Sin embargo, es posible percibir que las intervenciones también fueron moduladas por las características inherentes a las distintas fases del proceso terapéutico, en particular la etapa de finalización, en que el conflicto central de la relación la paciente, el miedo a ser abandonada, pudo ser vivido y elaborado. Limitaciones del estudio son apuntadas.

Safety of Cupping Therapy in Studies Conducted in Twenty One Century: A Review of Literature.

Background: Cupping therapy is a well-known traditional treatment modality, and has been used in various diseases around the world since ancient times. This method is reported to have a better clinical as well as adverse events (AEs) profile as found in various studies conducted around the world. Aim: This study identifies, assesses, and classifies the adverse events profile of various types of cupping therapies in studies conducted in twenty one century. Methods: Using electronic and hand searches, three databases including Pub Med, Google Scholar and Cochrane library were searched from the year 2000 to 2016. Studies were included in this review provided they reported adverse effects related to cupping therapy. Observational studies were assessed using the WHO-UMC causality scale. Randomized controlled trials were assessed in accordance to the quality of reporting for harm data. Results: Nine hundred seventy nine (n=979) articles were identified. Based on exclusion and inclusion criteria and extensive review of all retrieved articles by two independent reviewers, only 25 studies that included six RCTs, sixteen single case reports and three case series were finally selected. The mostly observed adverse events of cupping therapy were scar formation reported in four studies that described fifty nine cases, and burns reported in two studies described sixteen cases, respectively. The adverse events of cupping therapy could be classified into local and systemic adverse events. Conclusion: Cupping therapy adverse events were infrequently reported, but they were not rare. Most of adverse effects were mild to moderate in severity. Some of the cupping therapy adverse events were preventable by following the general infection control guidelines, hygienic techniques, safety protocols and rigorous training of cupping therapists. Cupping adverse events should be reported in all studies on cupping, and this therapy should be practiced only by qualified medical professionals.

Educação integral: significações por alunos de ensino fundamental pelo par educativo / Full-time school: meanings for students of elementary education using educational pair drawing

Este estudo teve como objetivo investigar os significados de um Programa de Educação Integral para crianças utilizando o desenho do Par Educativo. Os programas de Educação Integral oferecem atividades esportivas, culturais e de ampliação do currículo, supostamente em situações favorecedoras da qualidade de ensino e de formação. Foram avaliados, por meio da técnica gráfica do Par Educativo, os desenhos de três alunos com idades entre 10 e 11 anos, com e sem dificuldades de aprendizagem de escolas públicas de um município paulista. Foi solicitado aos alunos que desenhassem uma situação de aprendizagem em oficinas oferecidas no contra turno da aula e outra situação de aprendizagem em sala de aula. Como critérios de avaliação dos desenhos elegeram-se indicadores de conflito na relação de aprendizagem. Os resultados sugerem maior incidência de indicadores de conflito nos dois alunos com dificuldades de aprendizagem, quando comparados ao aluno sem dificuldades, em qualquer das situações; no entanto, na comparação dos desenhos de situações de aprendizagem nas oficinas com os das situações em sala de aula, não se obteve resultados consistentes. Embora se trate de uma amostra pequena para conclusões, pode-se afirmar que o Par Educativo é uma boa técnica para avaliar representações de relação vincular com a aprendizagem, sendo necessária a continuidade de estudos visando à validação de critérios para sua interpretação. Quanto à vivência em situações de aprendizagem em oficinas de ampliação da jornada escolar, sugerem-se mais estudos para avaliar o impacto desses programas na educação de crianças nas escolas públicas.

This study aimed to investigate the meanings of full-time education program for children using the Educational Pair Drawing. The proposal of full-time education is to offer cultural and sporting activities as well as activities to expand the scholar curriculum, supposedly in situations that could improve quality of teaching and training. Throughout the graphical technique of educational pair drawing were evaluated designs of three students aged 10 and 11 years old, with and without learning disabilities, of public schools in a municipality of Sao Paulo. Students were asked to draw a situation of learning in workshops offered in extra-curricular shifts and another situation of learning in-school. Conflict indicators related to learning were chosen as evaluation criteria of the drawings. The results suggest higher incidence of conflict indicators in both students with learning disabilities, compared to the one without difficulty, in every kind of situation. However, comparing the drawings about learning situations of extra-curricular workshops with those related to learning situation in-school, no significant result could be found. Even though the sampling was considerable small, we assume that the Educational Pair Drawing is a good technique for evaluating the relationship to learning, even though further studies will be necessary to validate the criteria for its interpretation. Considering experiencing situations of learning in after-school workshops, there is a need for future studies in order to evaluate the impact of these programs on the education of children in public schools.

Diseño a doble ciego y el uso de placebos psicológicos en investigación de resultados en psicoterapia: Es posible? Un estudio piloto de viabilidad / Double blind design and the use of psychological placebos in outcomes research in psychotherapy: Is it possible? A pilot feasibility study

El uso de placebos y diseños a doble ciego ha cumplido un papel crucial en la investigación clínica en Medicina. Su aplicación a la investigación de resultados en psicoterapia ha sido controversial. Muchos autores niegan la posibilidad de su aplicación debido a que el terapeuta debería conocer la condición del procedimiento aplicado. Se presenta detalladamente un estudio en el que se utilizó un procedimiento placebo correspondiente a EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing- Desensibilización y Reprocesamiento por Movimientos Oculares) con un Diseño Experimental de Caso Único. Los objetivos fueron los siguientes: poner a prueba la viabilidad de la implementación de un placebo de tipo psicológico en EMDR y la aplicación de un diseño a doble ciego en el estudio de resultados en EMDR. Se seleccionaron tres pacientes que sufrían de Trastorno por Estrés Postraumático. Se estableció una línea de base de la sintomatología presentada. Luego, los sujetos fueron asignados aleatoriamente a tres condiciones experimentales durante tres sesiones: (a) aplicación del protocolo EMDR sin ningún tipo de estimulación con auriculares en silencio (placebo 1), (b) aplicación del protocolo EMDR con estimulación bilateral auditiva simultánea (no alternada) (placebo 2) y (c) aplicación del protocolo estándar de EMDR con estimulación auditiva bilateral alternada (tratamiento activo). Tales procedimientos resultaron igualmente creíbles para el paciente y para el terapeuta. Esto permitió el desarrollo de un diseño de investigación a doble ciego para la investigación de resultados en EMDR. Finalmente, se discuten algunas posibles aplicaciones e implicancias de la introducción del uso de placebos psicológicos y diseño a doble ciego en la investigación en psicoterapia.

Double blind design and placebos have been of crucial importance in medical clinical research. Their use in outcomes research in the field of psychotherapy has been controversial, though. Their feasibility in such case has been denied by many authors based on the assumption that the psychotherapist would need to know the nature of the applied procedure. In view of this, the author has conducted a pilot feasibility study on three subjects within the context of his doctoral dissertation. Said dissertation aims at establishing the role of alternating bilateral auditory stimulation in the processing of traumatic memories as used in the EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing) technique. To such end, the EMDR basic principles and procedures are introduced -with particular attention to alternating bilateral auditory stimulation- and a pilot study using placebos during EMDR administration is presented in detail. The goals of this study are testing the feasibility of: (a) using a psychological placebo in EMDR therapy, and (b) applying a double blind design study in EMDR outcomes research. A single case experimental design was performed on three different patients suffering from PTSD (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder). A symptomatology baseline was established through out three weekly sessions using the DTS (Davidson Trauma Scale) and the OQ-45.2 (Outcomes Questionnaire 45.2). First, three CDs were recorded -one with no sound at all (CD-1, silence condition); another one with auditory stimulation consisting of a tic-tac sound recorded in monaural condition, and reproduced simultaneously over both earphones at a rate of one beat per second (CD-2, monaural condition) and a third one with alternating bilateral auditory stimulation consisting of the exact same sound recorded in stereophonic condition, and reproduced alternatively over the left and right earphones (CD-3, stereo condition)-. At a second stage, these three experimental conditions were assigned randomly to the three subjects, who were administered: (a) EMDR protocol without any type of stimulation, with no sound coming out of the earphones using CD-1 (placebo 1), (b) EMDR protocol with simultaneous bilateral auditory stimulation using CD-2 (placebo 2), and (c) EMDR protocol with alternating bilateral auditory stimulation using CD-3 (active treatment). In all cases, the experimental conditions were implemented during three full sessions in which the CDs were reproduced for the subjects through earphones, instead of speakers, to ensure that the psychotherapist was unaware of the actual conditions. Subsequently, the standard EMDR protocol (i.e., with alternating bilateral auditory stimulation) was administered to each subject until the end of the treatment, determined either by the symptoms being resolved or the maximum of ten sessions being completed. As a result of this pilot study, the author concludes that the feasibility of using double blind studies and placebos in EMDR psychotherapy has indeed been established. Since no apparent difficulties in the administration of the placebos were detected during the study, the use of psychological placebos seems viable. Such procedure is equally credible for the patient as well as for the psychotherapist, which renders possible the development of a double blind design in EMDR outcomes research. It should be noted, though, that the credibility of the placebo was not formally assessed, but rather was perceived through the author’s informal observation. Developing assessment criteria and formal tools to evaluate the credibility of placebo procedures is advisable if future investigations on the subject are to be carried. Even though this study was conducted under a Single Case Experimental Design, the placebo procedure employed could be easily adapted for its use in between group’s designs. Finally, some of the possible applications and consequences regarding the introduction of placebos and double blind design in psychotherapy research are discussed.

Thinking about neuropsychological rehabilitation: an interview with Barbara Wilson

Barbara Wilson is a psychologist and researcher in neuropsychological rehabilitation from U.K. She is the founder of the Oliver Zangwill Centre, a place that has strongly contributed to the development of theoretical and technical approaches to rehabilitate cognitive and socio-emotional problems after brain injury†. In this interview Barbara Wilson offers her personal perspective on the state of the art in neuropsychological rehabilitation, commenting on key topics such as the principles that guide holistic rehabilitation, the relevance of incorporating emotional problems after brain injury and the need to adopt research methodologies that are congruent with our object of study...

Gathering Evidence for Distance Education / Juntando Evidencia para la Educación a Distancia

A technology for evaluating computer-based distance education curricula for children and people working with children is described. The technology originated from a model of evaluation described by Markle (1967). The components were elaborated through data-based decisions reported in technical reports for a reading acquisition program, two math programs, a curriculum for people with autism, and a professional development program for clinicians working with children and adolescents. The article integrates single-case and group evaluation strategies, and draws attention to the need for better data in evidence-based decisions, and the use of data in continuous improvement efforts. Details concerning the individual learner at the developmental level of evaluation are emphasized, including an illustration of an e-learning rubric assisting this level of evaluation.

Se describe una tecnología por computadora para evaluar curricula para la educación a distancia para niños y personas que trabajan con niños. La tecnología se originó de un modelo de evaluación descrito por Markle (1967). Los componentes se elaboraron a través de decisiones basadas en datos, publicadas en reportes técnicos sobre un programa de adquisición de la lectura, dos programas de matemáticas, un curriculum para personas con autismo y en el desarrollo de un programa para clínicos que estaban trabajando con niños y adolescentes. El artículo integra estrategias de evaluación de un solo caso y de grupos y hace hincapié en la necesidad de obtener mejores datos para la toma de decisiones basada en evidencia y para el continuo mejoramiento de los esfuerzos. Se enfatizan los detalles relativos al aprendiz individual a un cierto nivel de desarrollo y evaluación, incluyendo una ilustración de una rúbrica de un e-aprendiz asistiendo este nivel de evaluación.

Effect of acupuncture treatment on chronic allergic rhinitis / 全日本鍼灸学会雑誌

[Objective] Although allergic rhinitis is the most common allergic inflammatory disease, and many sufferers seek acupuncture and moxibustion treatments, the evidence that acupuncture therapy alleviates allergic rhinitis is uncertain. Symptoms of rhinorrhea, sneezing and nasal obstruction are cardinal signs of chronic allergic rhinitis. Through a series of individual case studies, we investigated the clinical effects of acupuncture treatment on patients with chronic allergic rhinitis.<BR>[Method] Three patients with moderate to severe persistent allergic rhinitis eachreceived 8 sessions of acupuncture treatments (two times per week for 4 weeks). Evaluations were performed during each treatment period (`period B`) and before and after each treatment period (‘period A’) (ABA design). Acupuncture treatment was performed on GV23, LI20, LI4, ST36, GB20, BL13, and BL23. The effects of the acupuncture treatments were assessed by the degree of allergic rhinitis severity, according to nasal mucosa observation, subjective nasal obstruction, and allergic rhinitis indicators in the blood (eosinophilis and non specific immunoglobulion E). <BR>[Results] During period B, one patient showed a general improvement of allergic rhinitis severity, and all three patients showed an improvement of allergic rhinitis symptom severities, especially nasal obstruction. The improvement of severity wasconfirmed by observation of nasal mucosae and the grade of subjective nasal obstruction. But blood indicators did not show a significant change.<BR>[Conclusion] This study indicated that acupuncture treatment was effective for alleviating allergic rhinitis symptoms, especially nasal obstruction.

The effect of press tack needles on chronic heaviness, stiffness, and lassitude of lower limbs / 全日本鍼灸学会雑誌

[Objective] The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of press tack needles (PTNs) on subjective assessment of symptoms such as heaviness, stiffness and lassitude in the lower limbs during walking, or in everyday life. Sham PTNs are used for the purpose of comparison.<BR>[Methods] The subject is a male in his seventies who has a daily routine of walking 10,000 steps; experiences heaviness, stiffness and lassitude in his lower limbs; and has spinal or internal disease. Intervention: PTNs or sham PTNs are randomly chosen and worn on the subject's body for two days. The subject fills out a questionnaire regarding subjective assessment of symptom relief in his lower limbs during the following three time periods; in advance of the use of PTN, in the evening during the use of PTN, and the following evening. PTNs are applied to a total of 10 sites around both sides of his lower limbs depending on symptomatic or tender areas. Assessment: A questionnaire, in which a Visual Analog Scale (VAS) is introduced, is filled out three times per trial, that is, thirty records from ten trials are finally kept. Differences can be seen in the result answered the following evening. The results regarding the use of PTNs and the results regarding the use of sham PTN are analyzed respectively by randomization test (R test).<BR>[Result] Significant difference was shown in the heaviness of the lower limbs for both the PTN and sham in the evening of the next day (P < 0.05). Significant difference was shown in the stiffness of the lower limbs for both the PTN and sham in the evening of the next day (P < 0.05). <BR>[Conclusion] A PTN is attached for two days when there is a feeling in the lower limbs of heaviness and stiffness, even with spinal disease, liver disease or varicose veins in the lower extremities. It is suggested that PTNs are effective in decrease of symptoms.

Métodos de pesquisa em análise do comportamento / Research methods in behavior analysis / Méthodes de recherche en analyse du comportement / Métodos de investigación en Análisis del Comportamiento

Apresenta-se neste artigo a discussão sobre o status da análise do comportamento como disciplina científica, bem como sua relação com outras ciências e as implicações desta discussão para a caracterização dos métodos de pesquisa em análise do comportamento. Várias classificações dos métodos de pesquisa são apresentadas, com destaque para o método experimental, tendo em vista seu papel na construção da disciplina. Os supostos e as principais características dos delineamentos de sujeito único são apresentados. E, por fim, são brevemente discutidas algumas questões que se originam da interação e aparente confronto entre conceituação e prática de pesquisa em análise do comportamento, tais como: reversibilidade comportamental, variabilidade comportamental, procedimentos de tentativa e procedimentos de operante livre, análise molecular e análise molar, tratamento estatístico e quantificação, pesquisa experimental com humanos

The following topics are discussed: the status of behavior analysis as a scientific discipline and the related consequences to the characterization of research methods in behavior analysis. The array of research methods is classified according to distinct criteria, with an emphasis on experimental research. Underlying principles and main features of single case designs are presented.Finally, some of the current conceptual-methodological issues in behavior analysis are briefly discussed, such as: behavioral reversibility, behavioral variability, trial and free operant procedures, molecular and molar analysis, statistics and quantification applied to single case procedures and experimental research with human participants

Cet article présente une discussion sur le status de l'analyse du comportement en tant que discipline scientifique, ainsi que le rapport de celui-la avec les autres sciences et ses implications pour la caractérisation des méthodes de recherche en analyse du comportement. Plusieurs classifications des méthodes de recherche sont présentés, mettant l'accent sur la méthode expérimentale, compte tenu de son rôle dans la construction de la discipline. Les présuppositions et les principales caractéristiques de dessin de sujet unique sont présentées. Enfin, sont en peu de mots discutés des questions qui découlent de l'interaction et de la confrontation apparente entre le concept et la pratique de la recherche dans l'analyse du comportement: réversibilité et variabilité comportementale, les procédures d'essai et opérant libre, l'analyse moléculaire et molaire, l'analyse statistique et la quantification, la recherche expérimentale avec des humains

Este artículo presenta una discusión sobre el estatus del Análisis del Comportamiento como disciplina científica, así como su relación con otras ciencias y las implicaciones de esta discusión para la caracterización de los métodos de investigación en Análisis del Comportamiento. Se presentan varias clasificaciones de los métodos de investigación, con énfasis en el método experimental, dado su papel en la construcción de la disciplina. Son presentados los supuestos y las principales características de los diseños de caso único. Finalmente, se discuten brevemente algunas cuestiones que surgen de la interacción y aparente confrontación entre la conceptualización y la práctica investigativa en Análisis del Comportamiento, tales como: reversibilidad del comportamiento, variabilidad del comportamiento, procedimientos de ensayo discreto y de operante libre, análisis molecular y molar, tratamiento estadístico y cuantificación e investigación experimental con humanos

Effect of Acupuncture Treatment in Patients with Bronchial Asthma / 全日本鍼灸学会雑誌

[Aim] Acupuncture has traditionally been used in Japan in the treatment of bronchial asthma and is being increasingly applied. However, although there are many published studies on acupuncture and asthma, few meet the scientific criteria necessary to prove the effectiveness of acupuncture. Therefore, this study presents the clinical results of acupuncture treatment for adult bronchial asthma.<BR>[Design] Single-subject research design (N-of-1 method).<BR>[Setting] Department of Internal Medicine, Acupuncture and Moxibustion Center, Meiji University of Oriental Medicine, Japan.<BR>[Participants] Six patients of both genders (mean age, 49.0 years old) with moderate-to-severe persistent bronchial asthma.<BR>[Intervention] Six patients received 10 sessions of acupuncture treatment (once per week) for 10 weeks. The basic combination of meridian points for the treatment of the patients were LU 1 (Zhongfu), LU 5 (Chize), LU 9 (Taiyan), CV4 (Guanyuan), CV 12 (Zhongwan), BL 13 (Feishu), BL20 (Pishu) and BL23 (Shenshu).<BR>[Measurements] Primary outcome was the symptom of asthma at the end of the 10 treatment sessions. Secondary outcomes were the Dyspnea Visual Analogue Scale (DVAS), respiratory function, Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR), blood, the use of asthma drugs. The effect of the intervention on eosinophils in blood was assessed.<BR>[Main results] Late effects of asthma patients showed significantly better results compared with the base line on outcome measures after the 10 weeks. In this study, symptoms of asthma and dyspnea VAS in patients with asthma were significantly improved by acupuncture.<BR>[Conclusion] This study indicated that acupuncture was effective in asthma symptoms and respiratory functions.