Linking toxicity and predation in a venomous arthropod: the case of Tityus fuhrmanni (Scorpiones: Buthidae), a generalist predator scorpion

Abstract Background: Scorpions are arachnids that have a generalist diet, which use venom to subdue their prey. The study of their trophic ecology and capture behavior is still limited compared to other organisms, and aspects such as trophic specialization in this group have been little explored. Methods: In order to determine the relationship between feeding behavior and venom toxicity in the scorpion species Tityus fuhrmanni, 33 specimens were offered prey with different morphologies and defense mechanisms: spiders, cockroaches and crickets. In each of the experiments we recorded the following aspects: acceptance rate, immobilization time and the number of capture attempts. The median lethal dose of T. fuhrmanni venom against the three different types of prey was also evaluated. Results: We found that this species does not have a marked difference in acceptance for any of the evaluated prey, but the number of capture attempts of spiders is higher when compared to the other types of prey. The immobilization time is shorter in spiders compared to other prey and the LD50 was higher for cockroaches. Conclusions: These results indicate that T. fuhrmanni is a scorpion with a generalist diet, has a venom with a different potency among prey and is capable of discriminating between prey types and employing distinct strategies to subdue them.

Linking toxicity and predation in a venomous arthropod: the case of Tityus fuhrmanni (Scorpiones: Buthidae), a generalist predator scorpion

Background: Scorpions are arachnids that have a generalist diet, which use venom to subdue their prey. The study of their trophic ecology and capture behavior is still limited compared to other organisms, and aspects such as trophic specialization in this group have been little explored. Methods: In order to determine the relationship between feeding behavior and venom toxicity in the scorpion species Tityus fuhrmanni, 33 specimens were offered prey with different morphologies and defense mechanisms: spiders, cockroaches and crickets. In each of the experiments we recorded the following aspects: acceptance rate, immobilization time and the number of capture attempts. The median lethal dose of T. fuhrmanni venom against the three different types of prey was also evaluated. Results: We found that this species does not have a marked difference in acceptance for any of the evaluated prey, but the number of capture attempts of spiders is higher when compared to the other types of prey. The immobilization time is shorter in spiders compared to other prey and the LD50 was higher for cockroaches. Conclusions: These results indicate that T. fuhrmanni is a scorpion with a generalist diet, has a venom with a different potency among prey and is capable of discriminating between prey types and employing distinct strategies to subdue them.(AU)

Daily variation feeding of Astyanax lacustris (Lütken 1875) in a subtropical river

This study aimed to know the daily variation of Astyanax lacustris (Lütken 1875) feeding in a lotic environment. Fish were caught with a net for three days every three hours in the summer to capture ten individuals per hour in a stretch of the Ijuí River, Middle Uruguay River, Brazil. The captured specimens had their stomachs removed and the content analyzed and separated into seven food categories with the aid of stereomicroscope. For the analysis of food items were used the frequency of occurrence methods, volumetric method and applied the Alimentary Index (IAi). Two hundred stomachs were analyzed, of which 95% had food content. The most abundant items were algae and autochthonous insects. Astyanax lacustris feeds throughout the day especially early in the morning (9 hours) and reduces its feeding at night (24 hours and 3 hours). It was also verified variation of AI of different food items throughout the day. It is concluded that A. lacustris feeds throughout the day, especially in the daytime and that throughout the 24 hours it varies its diet due to photoperiod and food availability.

Individual niche trajectories in nesting green turtles on Rocas Atoll, Brazil: an isotopic tool to assess diet shifts over time / Trajetórias de nicho individual em tartarugas verdes do Atol das Rocas, Brasil: uma ferramenta isotópica para verificar trocas de dieta ao longo do tempo

Abstract In this study, multi-tissue (yolk and carapace) stable isotope analysis was used to assess individual isotopic niche trajectories of nesting green turtles on Rocas Atoll, off northeastern Brazil, and to reveal a diet shift in the temporal dimension. The diet trajectories of individual green turtles were highly directional, with a stronger component towards decreasing values of δ15N from carapace to yolk. When the green turtles are in their foraging sites (temporal window measured by the yolk samples), they are more herbivores. Conversely, in a broader temporal window, the green turtles demonstrate a carnivore-omnivore strategy, such as represented by heavier δ15N values in the carapace. This finding confirms a temporal diet shift. This is the first study that applies trophic niche trajectories for sea turtles, adding a new isotopic tool to understand the trophic ecology of these migrant animals.

Resumo Neste estudo, a análise de isótopos estáveis em múltiplos tecidos (vitelo e carapaça) foi usada para avaliar as trajetórias individuais de nicho isotópico de tartarugas verdes em nidificação no Atol das Rocas, nordeste do Brasil, e para revelar uma mudança de dieta na dimensão temporal. As trajetórias individuais da dieta de tartarugas verdes foram altamente direcionais, com um componente mais forte na direção de valores decrescentes de δ15N da carapaça ao vitelo. Quando as tartarugas verdes estão em seus locais de forrageamento (janela temporal medida pelas amostras de vitelo), elas são mais herbívoras. Por outro lado, em uma janela temporal mais ampla, as tartarugas verdes demonstram uma estratégia carnívora-onívora, representada por valores mais elevados de δ15N na carapaça. Os resultados confirmam uma mudança temporal na dieta. Este é o primeiro estudo que aplica trajetórias de nicho trófico para tartarugas marinhas, adicionando uma nova ferramenta isotópica para entender a ecologia trófica desses animais migrantes.

Do local environmental factors structure the trophic niche of the splash tetra, Copella arnoldi? A test in an Amazonian stream system

Environmental variation affects the availability of spatial and trophic resources in Amazonian streams and may be important factors structuring the diet of fishes. We analyzed the diet composition and trophic niche breadth of the lebiasinid splash tetra, Copella arnoldi, aiming to evaluate how environmental variation in Amazonian streams affects the species' trophic niche. Fish were captured and environmental factors were recorded in 20 streams in the Caxiuanã National Forest, in the eastern Amazon, in November 2010. We made a semi-quantitative analysis of stomach contents of 200 individuals. Copella arnoldi exhibited an omnivorous diet composed mainly of detritus and allochthonous invertebrates. Environmental variation (stream width, stream depth, canopy cover and flow) did not affect the diet composition or trophic niche breadth of the species, possibly due to the regional integrity of the forest within the boundaries of the protected area. Riparian cover probably minimizes the effect of the small-scale variations in food resources, thus leading to a locally homogeneous diet composition in the splash tetra C. arnoldi. (AU)

WATER-BUG (Abedus SP.; BELOSTOMATIDAE) PREDATION ON THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED Atelopus varius (BUFONIDAE) AT LAS TABLAS PROTECTED ZONE, COSTA RICA / Depredación por el Chinche de Agua (Abedus sp.; Belostomatidae) sobre el Críticamente Amenazado Atelopus varius (Bufonidae) en la Zona Protectora Las Tablas, Costa Rica

ABSTRACT Atelopus varius was believed to be extinct in Costa Rica until the rediscovery of a population within the Las Tablas Protected Zone (LTPZ) in 2008. This rediscovery represented a research and conservation opportunity, including contributing new information about the species' natural history. There are few reported species that prey on A. varius. This report presents a new predation record by a species of water bug (Abedus spp.) on an adult harlequin frog (A. varius). This is only the second confirmed predator for the species. These water bugs have been reported to prey on anurans during reproductive seasons, but in this case, the event occurred on A. varius out of their reproductive season. The effects of water bug predation on the only known reproductive population of this Critically Endangered species needs to be assessed to consider appropriate conservation measures to prevent further decline of the species.

RESUMEN Atelopus varius se consideró extinto en Costa Rica, hasta el redescubrimiento de una población en la Zona Protectora Las Tablas (ZPLT). Este hallazgo representa una oportunidad de investigación y conservación, incluyendo contribuir nueva información acerca de la historia natural de la especie. Hay pocas especies reportadas que depredan A. varius. Este reporte presenta un registro de depredación del chinche de agua (Abedus spp.), sobre un adulto de Sapo Arlequín (A. varius), como el segundo depredador confirmado de la especie. Usualmente, los chinches de agua depredan anuros durante su época reproductiva, pero este evento ocurrió fuera de la época reproductiva de A. varius. Los efectos de la depredación de chinches acuáticos sobre la única población reproductiva conocida de esta especie Críticamente Amenazada necesitan ser evaluados para considerar acciones de conservación.

Dieta de la rana de hojarasca Craugastor rhodopis (Anura: Craugastoridae): una especie abundante en la región montañosa del este de México / Diet of the leaf litter frog Craugastor rhodopis (Anura: Craugastoridae): an abundant species in the mountainous region of the east Mexico

Resumen La composición de la dieta en anfibios puede ser influenciada por diversos factores que causan su variación intraespecífica, como pueden ser la distribución geográfica, ontogenia, estacionalidad, y el sexo de los organismos. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la composición de la dieta en adultos de la Craugastor rhodopis (rana hojarasquera común) en la región montañosa del centro de Veracruz, México. Un total de 77 individuos adultos fueron colectados durante la época de lluvias de 2012, de los cuales 66 tuvieron contenido estomacal. Se realizó un análisis de la variación intersexual en la diversidad de la dieta, y el volumen, número de presas, y número de categorías de presa consumidas. La dieta de C. rhodopis estuvo compuesta por 20 categorías, de las cuales predominó Orthoptera en cuanto a número, volumen, frecuencia de ocurrencia e importancia relativa. Los machos consumieron presas de menor tamaño en relación a las hembras. Aunque ambos sexos consumieron similar número de presas, se encontró un efecto significativo de la interacción del sexo y el tamaño de las ranas sobre esta variable de la dieta, en la cual las hembras pequeñas consumen más presas que las grandes, y los machos grandes consumen más presas que los pequeños. El alto consumo de ortópteros (al menos en cuanto a volumen) es un fenómeno común dentro de la familia Craugastoridae y posiblemente está relacionado con el éxito de algunas especies en los ecosistemas donde habitan. A pesar de que la composición de la dieta fue similar entre sexos en C. rhodopis, se sugiere que la competencia intersexual por los recursos tróficos es mínima, dadas las diferencias en el tamaño de presas consumidas por machos y hembras.(AU)

Abstract Dietary composition in amphibians may be influenced by several factors that cause their intraspecific variation, such as geographic distribution, ontogeny, seasonality, and sex of organisms. The objective of this study was to analyze the composition of the diet in adults of the Polymorphic Robber Frog Craugastor rhodopis in the mountainous region of central Veracruz, Mexico. A total of 77 adult individuals were collected during the rainy season of 2012, of which 66 had stomach contents. We performed an analysis of the intersexual variation in diet diversity, volume, number of prey, and number of prey categories consumed. The diet of C. rhodopis was composed by 20 categories. Orthoptera predominated in terms of number, volume, frequency of occurrence, and relative importance. Males consumed smaller prey items relative to females. Although both sexes consumed similar numbers of prey, we found a significant effect of interaction of sex and size of frogs on this variable, with small females consuming more prey than the large ones, whereas in males the opposite occurred. High consumption of orthopterans (at least in volume) is a common phenomenon within Craugastoridae and is possibly related to the success of some species in the ecosystems where they live. Although the composition of the diet was similar between sexes in C. rhodopis, we suggest that intersexual competition for trophic resources is minimal, given differences in prey size consumed by males and females.(AU)

Diet and trophic niche overlap of Boana bischoffi and Boana marginata (Anura: Hylidae) in southern Brazil / Dieta e sobreposição de nicho trófico de Boana bischoffi e Boana marginata (Anura: Hylidae) no sul do Brasil

Abstract: The species Boana bischoffi and Boana marginata are endemic to the Atlantic Forest, where they often occur in sympatry. There is a large gap in the knowledge of natural history of both species. In this study, we aimed to describe and compare the diet composition of B. bischoffi and B. marginata in the southern domain of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We analyzed the gastrointestinal contents of 43 individuals of B. bischoffi and 30 individuals of B. marginata. Both showed a high trophic niche overlap (0.90 Ojk). The most important prey categories for both species belonged to the orders Araneae and Coleoptera. The species niche breadth (Bsta) varied from 0.35 to 0.42, suggesting a generalist feeding behavior for both species. Our data provide unprecedented information on these species' food composition, contributing to a better knowledge of the natural history of neotropical anurans.

Resumo: As espécies Boana bischoffi e Boana marginata, são endêmicas da Mata Atlântica onde frequentemente ocorrem em simpatria. Existe uma grande lacuna no conhecimento da história natural de ambas as espécies. Nesse estudo, nosso objetivo foi descrever e comparar a composição da dieta de B. bischoffi e B. marginata no limite sul da Mata Atlântica brasileira. Analisamos o conteúdo gastrointestinal de 43 indivíduos de B. bischoffi e 30 indivíduos de B. marginata. Ambas apresentaram elevada sobreposição de seus nichos tróficos (0,90 Ojk). As categorias de presas mais importantes para ambas as espécies pertenciam as ordens Araneae e Coleoptera. A amplitude de nicho das espécies (Bsta) variou de 0,35 a 0,42, sugerindo comportamento alimentar generalista para ambas. Nossos dados trazem informações inéditas sobre a composição alimentar destas espécies, contribuindo para um maior conhecimento da história natural dos anuros neotropicais.

Seasonal and ontogenetic diet patterns of the freshwater pufferfishColomesus asellus (Müller & Troschel, 1849) in the upper-middleTocantins River / Padrões sazonais e ontogenéticos da dieta do baiacu de água doce Colomesus asellus(Müller & Troschel, 1849) no alto-médio rio Tocantins

We described the feeding habits of Colomesus asellus from riverbanks of the upper-middleTocantins River, Central Brazil. Two sampling expeditions were carried out in August (dry season) and inOctober (rainy season) of 2013, downstream from the Lajeado Hydroelectric Power Plant, Tocantins state.The diet of C. asellus was characterized and compared between juveniles and adults and betweenindividuals captured in the dry season and in the rainy season. Individuals exhibited marked temporalsegregation, with a predominance of adults on the riverbanks during the dry season and the predominanceof juveniles in the rainy season. The diet of this species was based on diverse benthic prey, mostlyEphemeroptera nymphs (Insecta). Contrary to our expectations, the diet composition of C. asellus was notinfluenced by seasonal changes or ontogenetic factors, but the size of individuals determined the numberof prey consumed. Thus, C. asellus can be classified in its trophic ecology as an insectivore without relationwith fish size and seasonality.

Descrevemos os hábitos alimentares de Colomesus asellus capturados nas margens do rioTocantins, Brasil Central. Duas expedições de coleta foram realizadas em agosto (estação seca) e emoutubro (estação chuvosa) de 2013, a jusante da Usina Hidrelétrica de Lajeado, Estado do Tocantins. Adieta de C. asellus foi caracterizada e comparada entre juvenis e adultos e entre indivíduos capturados naestação seca e na estação chuvosa. Os indivíduos apresentaram marcada segregação temporal, compredominância de adultos nas margens do rio durante a estação seca e predominância de juvenis na estaçãochuvosa. A dieta desta espécie foi baseada em diversas presas bentônicas, principalmente ninfas deEphemeroptera (Insecta). Contrariamente às nossas expectativas, a composição da dieta de C. asellus não foiinfluenciada por mudanças sazonais ou fatores ontogenéticos, mas o tamanho dos indivíduos determinou onúmero de presas consumidas. Assim, a espécie pode ser classificada como insetívora, sem variação em suaecologia trófica relacionada à sazonalidade do ambiente ou ao seu tamanho.

Dieta del cernícalo americano (Falco sparverius Linnaeus, 1758) en dos localidades del valle interandino del norte de Ecuador

Damos a conocer la dieta del Cernícalo Americano Falco sparverius, por medio del análisis de 205 egagrópilas provenientes de dos localidades en la región norte interandina de Ecuador. Los ítems presa más representa- tivos de Sangolquí y Tababela fueron los coleópteros (48.4 y 39.5%), seguidos por ortópteros (31.3 y 30.7 %) respectivamente. En términos de biomasa, los mamíferos fueron el grupo de mayor importancia alimenticia en ambos sitios; siendo el roedor invasor Mus musculus la presa de preferencia; es decir que ésta rapaz estaría brindando un apreciable servicio como controlador de plagas. El índice de Shannon (H´= 1.894) indica una mediana diversidad de presas y la amplitud de dieta (0.26) sugiere que Falco sparverius presenta una dieta especialista en los dos sitios. Difiriendo de otros estudios donde presenta una dieta generalista

We present the diet of American Kestrel Falco sparverius, through pellets analysis, from two different localities in the Ecuadorian north-interandean region. The most representative prey items from Sangolquí and Tababela were Coleoptera (48.4, and 39.5%), followed by Orthoptera (31.3 and 30.7%), respectively. In terms of biomass, mammals were the most important food resource in both sites, the invasive rodent Mus musculus was the most preferred prey; it would provide an appreciable predatory as pest control service. The Shannon index (H'= 1.894) indicates a median diversity of prey and, a diet amplitude of 0.26 suggests that the American Kestrel in our study sites is a specialist. Its diet differs from its relatives from other habitats where they present a generalist diet

Diet and trophic structure of the fish assemblage in the mid-course of the Teles Pires River, Tapajós River basin, Brazil

This study was carried out in a section of the middle course of the Teles Pires River, a clear water river that drains ancient and highly eroded geological formations, and where five hydropower plants are planned or in construction. In this study we tested the hypothesis that local fish fauna is mainly sustained by autochthonous food resources, with modest changes in the trophic structure of fish assemblages along the hydrometric cycle. Sampling was performed every three months between July 2008 and May 2009 at seven sites distributed along a 50-km section of the river. Piscivores was the most representative group in terms of biomass, abundance and species richness, followed by herbivores, insectivores and omnivores. The trophic structure did not change significantly during the hydrometric cycle, only omnivores showed significant temporal variation in abundance. The main food resources consumed by the ichthyofauna were of autochthonous origin, mainly immature aquatic insects and fish. Eight of 34 species showed temporal variations of the food resources consumed. Our results corroborate the hypothesis that the fish fauna of large, clear water rivers can be sustained by autochthonous resources. This contributes to understanding some determinants of fish production in large Neotropical rivers.(AU)

Este estudo foi desenvolvido em um trecho do curso médio do rio Teles Pires, um rio de águas claras que drena regiões de terreno geologicamente antigos, e onde cinco usinas hidrelétricas estão previstas ou em construção. Dado a transparência da água e as características do terreno nos hipotetizamos que a fauna de peixes local é principalmente sustentada por recurso autóctone e com alterações pouco significativas na estrutura trófica ao longo de um ciclo hidrométrico. As amostragens foram realizadas trimestralmente entre julho/2008 e maio/2009 em sete pontos dispostos ao longo de um trecho de cerca de 50 km do rio. Piscívoros foram os mais representativos em biomassa, número de exemplares e riqueza de espécies, seguidos pelos herbívoros, insetívoros e onívoros. Não houve mudança significativa na estrutura trófica da assembleia ao longo do ciclo hidrométrico, apenas onívoros apresentaram significativa variação temporal na abundância. Os principais recursos alimentares utilizados pela ictiofauna foram de origem autóctone, sobretudo insetos imaturos e peixes. Oito de 34 espécies apresentaram variação temporal na dieta. Os resultados corroboram a hipótese de que grandes rios de água clara podem ser sustentados majoritariamente por recursos autóctone. Desta forma, este estudo contribui para a compreensão de alguns fatores determinantes da produção secundária em grandes rios Neotropicais.(AU)

Feeding habits of billfishes (Carangaria: Istiophoriformes) in the Ecuadorian Pacific Ocean

The feeding habits of Makaira nigricans, Kajikia audax, Istiophorus platypterus (Istiophoridae), and Xiphias gladius (Xiphiidae) in the southeast Pacific Ocean were examined in Manta and Santa Rosa, Ecuador. This study describes the diets of these billfish species, evaluates dietary differences between species, and assesses seasonal differences in diet. A total of 274 M. nigricans, 321 K. audax, 267 I. platypterus, and 252 X. gladius were collected between February 2014 and April 2015. The scombrid Auxis spp. was the most important prey for M. nigricans, K. audax and I. platypterus, while the squid Dosidicus gigas was the most important prey for X. gladius. The results of the ANOSIM confirmed significant differences in feeding habits between the members of the family Istiophoridae and X. gladius. Seasonal differences for I. platypterus also were observed. Billfishes are specialist consumers with a narrow niche breadth (B a: M. nigricans and K. audax=0.1, I. platypterus=0.05, and X. gladius=0.04).(AU)

Los hábitos alimentarios de Makaira nigricans, Kajikia audax, Istiophorus platypterus (Istiophoridae) y Xiphias gladius (Xiphiidae) en el Océano Pacífico sudeste se examinaron en Manta y Santa Rosa, Ecuador. Este estudio describe las dietas de estas especies de peces de pico, evalúa las diferencias de la dieta entre especies y las diferencias estacionales en la dieta. Se obtuvo un total de 274 M. nigricans, 321 K. audax, 267 I. platypterus y 252 X. gladius entre febrero 2014 y abril 2015. El escómbrido Auxis spp. fue la presa más importante para M. nigricans, K. audax y I. platypterus, mientras que el calamar Dosidicus gigas fue la presa más importante para X. gladius. Los resultados de ANOSIM confirmaron diferencias significativas en los hábitos alimentarios entre los miembros de la familia Istiophoridae y X. gladius. También se observaron diferencias estacionales para I. platypterus. Los peces de pico son consumidores especialistas con una amplitud de nicho estrecha (B a: M. nigricans y K. audax=0.1, I. platypterus=0.05 y X.gladius=0.04).(AU)

Understanding trophic relationships among Caribbean sea urchins

ResumenLas especies Echinometra lucunter, Echinometra viridis, Lytechinus variegatus, Tripneustes ventricosus, and Diadema antillarum son los erizos de mar más comunes en los hábitat litorales del Caribe. Los erizos de mar T. ventricosus y L. variegatus habitan generalmente los pastos marinos mientras que las otras tres especies se encuentran asociadas a sustratos rocosos. Los hábitos alimentarios de estas especies han sido bien documentados y son reconocidas como herbívoros - omnívoros; sin embargo, pocas de estas especies han sido caracterizadas isotópicamente. Utilizamos los isótopos estables para caracterizar estas cinco especies de erizos y establecer las posiciones tróficas para las especies que cohabitan los mismos ecosistemas. También cuantificamos la contribución de los recursos alimentarios para E. lucunter. Los erizos T. ventricosus y D. antillarum mostraron los mayores valores de δ15N y valores similares de δ13C que variaron desde -11.6 ± 0.63 a -10.4 ± 0.99 %; donde el erizo E. lucunter mostró los valores más negativos con -15.40 ± 0.76 %. Las comunidades de algas no mostraron diferencias en valores promedio de δ15N (F= 1.300, df= 3, p= 0.301), pero sí mostraron variaciones en los valores de δ13C (F= 7.410, df= 3, p= 0.001). Los estudios de amplitud de elipses de nicho determinaron que las especies de los biotopos rocosos (D. antillarum, E. lucunter y E. viridis) no mostraron solapamiento de nicho. Similar resultado también se encontró en las especies de erizos que habitan en los pastos marinos. Sin embargo, la distancia entre estas dos especies fue menor respecto a la distancia entre las especies de erizos que habitan en los sustratos rocosos. Nuestros resultados muestran que las especies que habitan en los pastos marinos mostraron valores más elevados de δ13C en comparación con las especies de los sustratos rocosos. No se encontraron diferencias espaciales para E. lucunter en δ15N, pero sí en δ13C. Los modelos de mezcla bayesianos demuestran la plasticidad alimentaria de E. lucunter, especie capaz de utilizar múltiples recursos algales dependiendo de la disponibilidad por sitio. Semejanzas en δ15N entre D. antillarum y T. ventricosus parecen indicar similitudes tróficas entre ambas especies. Si bien T. ventricosus es reconocido como omnívoro, D. antillarum siempre ha sido considerado un herbívoro generalista. Finalmente, la falta de solapamiento entre las especies en los dos biotopos parece indicar una estrategia de partición de recursos para evitar la competencia de nicho entre especies concurrentes.

AbstractThe species Echinometra lucunter, Echinometra viridis, Lytechinus variegatus, Tripneustes ventricosus, and Diadema antillarum are the most common sea urchins of littoral habitats in the Caribbean. T. ventricosus and L. variegatus are associated with seagrass beds, while the other three species usually inhabit hardground substrates. Food preferences of these species are well documented and they are commonly accepted as being primarily herbivorous-omnivorous; nevertheless, few of them have previously been characterized isotopically. We used this approach for assessing the isotopic characterization of five echinoids. We established the trophic position of two groups of co-occurring species and quantified the contribution of food resources in the diet of Echinometra lucunter, considered the most common sea urchin in the Caribbean region. The species T. ventricosus and D. antillarum showed the highest values of δ15N. Sea urchins exhibited similar values of δ13C varying from -11.6 ± 0.63 to -10.4 ± 0.99%. The echinoid E. lucunter displayed the lowest values of carbon, from -15.40 ± 0.76%. Significant differences among species were found for δ15N and δ13C. Seaweed communities exhibited no differences among sites for overall δ15N (F= 1.300, df= 3, p= 0.301), but we found spatial differences for δ13C (F= 7.410, df= 3, p= 0.001). The ellipse-based metrics of niche width analysis found that the hardground biotope species (D. antillarum, E. lucunter, and E. viridis) did not overlap each other. Similar results were obtained for the co-occurring species of the seagrass biotope; however, the distance between these species was closer than that of the hardground biotope species. The Bayesian mixing models run for E. lucunter at all four localities found differences in food resources contribution. The algae D. menstrualis, C. crassa and B. triquetrum dominated in CGD; whereas C. nitens, Gracilaria spp., and D. caribaea represented the main contributor algae to the diet of E. lucunter at LQY. In Culebra Island, no dominance of any particular algae was detected in TMD, where six of the eight species exhibited a similar contribution. Similarities in δ15N between D. antillarum and T. ventricosus may hint towards a similar trophic level for these species, although T. ventricosus is widely accepted as an omnivore, while D. antillarum is considered a generalist herbivore. The lack of overlap among species in the two biotopes seems to indicate a resource partitioning strategy to avoid niche competition among co-occurring species. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (2): 837-848. Epub 2016 June 01.

Estructura trófica de los peces en arroyos del Corral de San Luis, cuenca del Bajo Magdalena, Caribe, Colombia / Trophic structure of river fish from Corral de San Luis, Magdalena river basin, Colombia Caribbean

ResumenLos estudios sobre la ecología trófica de las especies permiten reconocer los diferentes grupos tróficos, importancia de los niveles tróficos y las interrelaciones que existen entre sus componentes y los demás miembros de la comunidad. Es común en peces emplear el análisis del contenido estomacal como una herramienta útil desde el punto de vista ecológico. En esta investigación se estudiaron los hábitos alimenticios, variación alimenticia y relaciones tróficas de los peces presente en arroyos del corregimiento del Corral de San Luis, Tubará, Atlántico, cuenca del bajo Rio Magdalena, Caribe, Colombia, a partir del análisis del contenido estomacal, entre noviembre 2012 y octubre 2013. Para la recolecta de los peces se empleó una la red de arrastre (2x5 m, ojo de malla de 0.5 cm), se reportó in situ variables fisicoquímicas. En el análisis del contenido estomacal se utilizó el método numérico (% N), volumétrico (% v) y frecuencia de ocurrencia (% FO), coeficiente de vacuidad (C.v) e índice de importancia alimentaria (i.A). La información se procesó por medio de análisis multivariados, índices ecológicos y modelos nulos: análisis de correspondencia canónica (ACC), análisis de componentes principales (ACP), amplitud del nicho trófico (ShannonWeaver H´) y solapamiento trófico (Morisita-Horn). La ictiofauna se conformó por Awaous banana, Agonostomus monticola, Andinoacara latifrons, Hyphessobrycon proteus, Poecilia gillii, Gobiomorus dormitor y Synbranchus marmoratus. Las especies mostraron diferencias significativas (K-W= 20.86; p<0.05) con respecto al consumo del recurso trófico. Fueron clasificados según sus hábitos tróficos como: omnívoros con tendencia a la insectivoría (A. monticola H´0.60; A. latifrons H´0.43), herbívoros con tendencia a la alguivoría (A. banana H´0.50; P. gillii H´0.54) y carnívoro con tendencia a la insectivoría (H. proteus H´0.23), donde los invertebrados bentónicos y las microalgas son los recursos tróficos más importantes. Un total de 65 ítems alimenticios fueron determinados 21 en A. banana (2 únicos, 19 compartidos), 40 en A. monticola (21 únicos, 19 compartidos), 19 en A. latifrons (5 únicos, 14 compartidos), 6 en H. proteus (1 único, 5 compartidos) y P. gillii con 28 (4 únicos, 24 compartidos). El análisis de correspondencia canónica mostró a la conductividad, la salinidad y el pH como las variables con una relación directa sobre la estructura del ensamblaje de los peces en los sitios de muestreo. Los modelos nulos muestran que el grupo de peces se encontraban significantemente segregados (p=0.001) en el eje trófico con respecto a los ítems alimenticios compartidos, dicha segregación no está influenciada o generada por la competencia; el índice de Morisita-Horn mostró un falso solapamiento trófico (similitud del 80 % aprox.) entre A. banana y P. gillii. El ACP fue explicado en el primer componente principalmente por fitoplancton, mientras en el componente dos se correlacionó con ítems de origen animal, los peces asociados al CP1 son P. gillii con altos valores en la ingesta de microalgas, y A. banana, el CP2 fue explicado por A. monticola la cual se correlacionó con los altos valores en ítems de origen animal. El grupo de peces estudiados se comportan como un ensamblaje ya que la interrelación trófica corresponde a un falso solapamiento trófico y estas no se excluyen unas a otras dentro del ecosistema, utilizando diferentes recursos alimenticios con diferencias espaciales.

AbstractEcological studies of species, such as the stomach content analysis, allow us to recognize different trophic groups, the importance of trophic levels and the interrelationships among species and other members of the community. in this investigation, we studied food habits, feeding variation and trophic relationships of the fishes present in streams of the Corral de San Luis drainage, Tubará, Atlántico Department, a part of the lower Magdalena River Basin in Colombian Caribbean. Fish samples of Awaous banana, Agonostomus monticola, Andinoacara latifrons, Hyphessobrycon proteus, Poecilia gillii, Gobiomorus dormitor and Synbranchus marmoratus were obtained using a seine (2x5 m, mesh 0.5 cm), from November 2012 to October 2013. To analyze their stomach contents, we used numeric (% N), volumetric (% v) and frequency of occurrence (% FO) methods, an emptiness coefficient (C.v), index of food item importance (i.A). Besides, physical and chemical habitat parameters were recorded on site. information obtained was processed using multivariate statistical analysis, ecological indices, and null models: canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), principal component analysis (PCA), trophic niche amplitude (Shannon-Weaver H´) and trophic overlap (Morisita-Horn). We observed significant differences on food resources consumption (K-W= 20.86; p<0.05) among the studied species. They were classified according to their food habits as omnivores with a tendency towards insectivory (A. monticola H´0.60; A. latifrons H´0.43), herbivores with a tendency towards the consumption of algae (A. banana H´0.50; P. gillii H´0.54) and carnivores with a tendency towards insectivory (H. proteus H´0.23); benthic invertebrates and microalgae were found the most important food sources. A total of 65 food items were identified in this study: 21 for A. banana (2 unique, 19 shared), 40 for A. monticola (21 unique, 19 shared), 19 for A. latifrons (5 unique, 14 shared), 6 for H. proteus (1 unique, 5 shared) and P. gillii with 28 (4 unique, 24 shared). The canonical correspondence analysis showed that water conductivity, salinity and pH were the variables that directly influenced fish community structure at the sampled sites. The null model analyses showed that the group of fishes was significantly segregated (p= 0.001) along the trophic axis, with respect to shared food items, and that the segregation was not influenced or generated by competition. The Morisita-Horn index showed false trophic overlap (similarity of about 80 %) between A. banana and P. gillii. The first component of the PCA analysis was explained mainly by phytoplankton, and component two was correlated with items of animal origin. The fishes associated with PC1 were P. gillii and A. banana, with high ingestion values of microalgae. PC2 was explained by A. monticola with high numbers of food items of animal origin. The group of fishes studied behaved as an assemblage; given that the trophic interrelationships showed false trophic overlap, and that they did not exclude one another from the ecosystems, but instead, used different food resources and different physical spaces within their habitat. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (2): 715-732. Epub 2016 June 01.

Diet and ecomorphology of Leporinus reticulatus (Characiformes: Anostomidae) from the upper Rio Juruena, MT, Brazil: ontogenetic shifts related to the feeding ecology / Dieta e ecomorfologia de Leporinus reticulatus (Characiformes: Anostomidae) do alto Rio Juruena, MT, Brasil: alterações ontogenéticas relacionadas à ecologia alimentar

The conservation of diverse and well-distributed fish taxa, as the genus Leporinus, relies intrinsically on the knowledge of the ecological attributes of its representatives. Aiming to increase this knowledge, studies on diet and ecomorphology are ideal to provide important information about species ecology. Thus, this study aimed to analyze aspects of feeding ecology of L. reticulatus, from the upper Rio Juruena, Mato Grosso State, Brazil. The diet of specimens in different ontogenetic stages was compared, as well as their teeth morphology and ecomorphological attributes. Leporinus reticulatus presented omnivorous diet, with higher consumption of invertebrates by smaller specimens (younger ones), and gradual introduction of plant items in larger specimens (older ones). The items consumed by the individuals and the ecomorphological attributes indicated that the species is generalist and opportunistic, besides its association with the river bottom, evidencing a benthic feeding behavior. This species presents a gradual ontogenetic modification in teeth shape and mouth positioning, ranging from a terminal mouth with tricuspid teeth, in smaller specimens, to an inferior mouth with spatula shaped teeth with no cusps, in larger specimens.The ecomorphological attributes indicate an increasing swimming efficiency, and ability for performing vertical displacements, along the ontogenetic development, which in addition to the morphological ontogenetic alterations in the buccal apparatus, contributes to a better ability to explore another niches.

A conservação de táxons de peixes de grande diversidade e amplamente distribuídos, como o gênero Leporinus, depende intrinsicamente do conhecimento de atributos ecológicos de seus representantes. Objetivando o aumento deste conhecimento, estudos que abordam a dieta e a ecomorfologia são ideais para prover informações importantes sobre a ecologia de espécies. Assim, este trabalho teve como objetivo analisar aspectos da ecologia alimentar de L. reticulatus originários do alto Rio Juruena, estado do Mato Grosso, Brasil. Foi comparada a dieta de espécimes em diferentes estágios ontogenéticos, assim como a morfologia dos dentes e atributos ecomorfológicos. Leporinus reticulatus apresentou dieta onívora, com maior consumo de invertebrados pelos espécimes de menor porte (mais jovens), e introdução gradual de itens vegetais por espécimes de maior porte (mais velhos). Os itens consumidos pelos indivíduos e os atributos ecomorfológicos indicaram que esta espécie é generalista e oportunista, além de sua associação com o fundo do rio, evidenciando um comportamento alimentar bentônico. Esta espécie apresenta modificação ontogenética gradual no formato dos dentes e posição da boca, variando de uma boca terminal e dentes tricúspides, em espécimes menores, a uma boca inferior e dentes em forma de espátula sem cúspides, em espécimes maiores. Os atributos ecomorfológicos indicaram um crescente aumento na eficiência natatória, e na habilidade de realizar deslocamentos verticais, ao longo do desenvolvimento ontogenético, o que, em conjunto às alterações morfológicas ontogenéticas no aparato bucal, contribuem para uma melhor habilidade em explorar outros nichos.

FIRST APPROACH TO THE TROPHIC ECOLOGY AND DIET OF THE RAINBOW RUNNER, Elagatis bipinnulata (QUOY & GAIMARD, 1825) (PISCES: CARANGIDAE), IN THE CENTRAL COLOMBIAN CARIBBEAN / Primera aproximación a la ecología trófica del salmón, Elagatis bipinnulata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) (Pisces: Carangidae), en el Caribe central colombiano

The rainbow runner (Elagatis bipinnulata) scores high in trophic level (4.24) but it is not a voracious fish (Q/B = 10.8). Its diet is dominated by the dwarf herring (Jenkinsia lamprotaenia), eats more in the dry season, than in the rainy season and significantly more in the afternoon that in the morning suggesting preference for daylight feeding.

Trophic ecology of the exotic Lerma livebearer Poeciliopsis infans (Cyprinodontiformes: Poeciliidae) in the Lago de Pátzcuaro, Central Mexico / Ecología trófica del pez exótico Guatapote del Lerma Poeciliopsis infans (Cyprinodontiformes: Poeciliidae) en el Lago de Pátzcuaro, Región Central de México

Exotic fish species has caused several impacts on aquatic biodiversity. The Lago de Pátzcuaro has some well-studied exotic species, except the Lerma livebearer Poeciliopsis infans. This fish species was introduced into the Lago de Pátzcuaro before 1997 and the aspects of its biology are still unknown. In this study we assessed aspects of the trophic ecology of this exotic fish, P. infans, using gut content and stable isotope analysis to understand its capacity to tolerate anthropogenic environmental degradation in the Lago de Pátzcuaro. We also determined its trophic guild position (TP) using the TrophLab Program and stable isotope. Niche breadth was calculated by standardized Levins’ Index (Bi). Fish was captured with a seine during wet and dry seasons at six environmentally different sites and gut contents were obtained. We analyzed a total of 239 gut contents of P. infans. The contribution of each food item in the diet was quantified using frequency of occurrence and area percentage. The importance of each prey item was determined according to the index of relative importance (IRI), and the omnivory index (OI) was used to assess the feeding behavior. Fish were categorized by size and the diet was compared between fish sizes and sites. Dorsal muscle tissue and water hyacinth tissue was obtained for nitrogen isotope signature (δ15N) analysis. Additionally, we measured water and habitat quality to evaluate environmental conditions at each site. We concluded that P. infans is an omnivore (OI=0.28) that consumes mainly detritus (44%), epiphytic diatoms (37%), and secondary on terrestrial insects (6%) and zooplankton (10%). The fish can behave as a specialist (Bi=0.39) or generalist (Bi=0.68) and as a primary consumer (TROPH=2.2; TP=2.3) with a feeding strategy that was the same at different sizes, seasons and sites. None of the evaluated sites showed good environmental quality. We argue that P. infans can tolerate changes in water quality and feeding items availability, because it can exploit resources in multiple trophic webs. However, this species could be dependent on habitat complexity, especially in the aquatic vegetation cover.

Las especies de peces exóticas han causado numerosos impactos sobre la biodiversidad acuática. El Lago de Pátzcuaro tiene especies exóticas bien estudiadas, excepto el Guatapote del Lerma, Poeciliopsis infans. Esta especie fue introducida en el Lago de Pátzcuaro antes de 1997 y los aspectos de su biología son aún desconocidos. Se estudiaron aspectos de la ecología trófica de este pez exótico, P. infans, mediante el uso de análisis de contenidos del tracto digestivo para entender su capacidad para tolerar la degradación ambiental antrópica en el Lago de Pátzcuaro. Lo que involucró la determinación del gremio y posición trófica (TP) con el programa TrophLab e isotopos estables. La amplitud de dieta fue calculada con el índice estandarizado de Levin (Bi). Un total de 239 tractos digestivos de P.infans fueron analizados. Los peces fueron capturados con una red tipo chinchorro durante la temporada de lluvias y estiaje en seis sitios ambientalmente distintos. La contribución de cada componente de la dieta fue cuantificada con la frecuencia de ocurrencia y el porcentaje de área. La importancia relativa de cada artículo alimentario fue determinada de acuerdo al índice de importancia relativa (IIR) y el índice de omnivoría (OI) fue usado para estimar la conducta en la forma de alimentarse. La dieta fue comparada entre tallas y entre sitios de estudio. El tejido de músculo dorsal y el tejido de lirio fueron obtenidos para determinar valores de δ15N. De manera adicional, la calidad del agua y del hábitat fue medida para evaluar la condición ambiental en cada sitio. P. infans es un omnívoro (OI=0.28) que consume principalmente detritus (44%), diatomeas epifíticas (37%) y de forma secundaria insectos terrestres (6%) y zooplancton (10%); puede comportarse como especialista (Bi=0.39) o generalista (Bi=0.68) y consumidor primario (TROPH=2.2; TP=2.3). La estrategia alimenticia fue similar entre tallas, temporadas y sitios. Ningún sitio mostró buena calidad ambiental. Los resultados del presente estudio permiten argumentar que P. infans puede tolerar cambios en la calidad del agua y en la disponibilidad de artículos alimenticios, porque puede usar recursos provenientes de múltiples redes tróficas. Sin embargo, esta especie podría ser dependiente de la complejidad del hábitat, especialmente de la cobertura de la vegetación acuática.

Foraging activity of the snail kite, Rostrhamus sociabilis (Aves: Accipitridae) in wetlands of southern Brazil / Atividade de forrageio de gavião-caramujeiro, Rostrhamus sociabilis (Aves: Accipitridae) em áreas úmidas do sul do Brasil

The snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis) is widely distributed in the American continent. Its specialised diet consists mostly of the gastropod mollusk Pomacea sp and its foraging strategy probably varies depending on the season, prey availability, and climate factors, which can be reflected in its semi-nomad behaviour. This study was aimed at examining the hunting strategy of the snail kite, and its association with climate factors and habitat heterogeneity. Direct observations of birds between January 2010 and March 2011 in southernmost Brazil revealed that hunting was still the predominant foraging strategy (79% of records) to capture mollusks. Despite morphological specialisations to extract mollusks from the shells, the handling time (average = 92.4 s) was twice as much the time between prey search and capture (average = 55 s). The increase in the number of mollusks ingested apparently occurs when the resting time on perches or any other substrates near the hunting sites decreases between successive unsuccessful attempts. The correlation between the number of consumed preys and the climatic variables examined was low. Regarding habitat heterogeneity, our findings suggest that birds forage preferentially in marshes with low vegetation, which may increase the access to mollusks. The hunting efficiency of the snail kite was high (76 % successful attempts) compared to those of other birds of prey.

O gavião-caramujeiro (Rostrhamus sociabilis) possui ampla distribuição no continente americano e apresenta dieta especializada no molusco gastrópode Pomacea sp. Possivelmente, a estratégia de forrageio da espécie responde às variações sazonais na disponibilidade de presas, bem como aos fatores climáticos, o que pode refletir em seu comportamento seminômade. O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar a estratégia de caça do gavião-caramujeiro, buscando suas associações quanto aos aspectos climáticos e à heterogeneidade do habitat. Observações diretas das aves, feitas entre janeiro de 2010 e março de 2011 no extremo sul brasileiro, revelaram que, para a captura dos moluscos, as aves usaram predominantemente a estratégia de caça do tipo still hunting (79% dos registros). Apesar de apresentar especializações morfológicas para a extração dos moluscos da concha, a avaliação do tempo empregado na manipulação (média = 92,4 s) foi quase o dobro do desprendido entre a procura e a captura (média = 55 s) das presas. Aparentemente, o aumento no número de moluscos ingeridos ocorre por meio de redução no tempo de repouso entre sucessivas investidas de captura mal sucedidas, tal como pelo uso de poleiros ou quaisquer outros substratos próximos aos locais de captura. O número de presas consumidas apresenta baixa relação com as variáveis climáticas testadas. Quanto à heterogeneidade do habitat, os dados sugerem que as aves forrageiam preferencialmente em banhados com cobertura vegetal rasteira, o que poderia aumentar a acessibilidade aos moluscos. O gavião-caramujeiro apresentou alta taxa de eficiência de caça (76% das investidas tiveram êxito), revelando a eficiência da estratégia de caça desta ave quando comparada a outras aves de rapina.

Feeding ecology of Dash-dot Tetra Hemigrammus belottii (Steindachner 1882) (Characiformes: Characidae) in the streams of the Urucu River basin, central Amazonia, Brazil / Ecologia alimentar de Hemigrammus belottii (Steindachner 1882) (Characiformes: Characidae) em riachos da bacia do Rio Urucu, Amazonia Central, Brasil

The present study describes aspects of feeding ecology of Dash-dot Tetra Hemigrammus belottii (Characiformes: Characidae) collected in the Urucu River basin in Coari, Amazonas (Brazil), aims to respond the following question: What is the influence of hydrological periods (dry and wet) and spatial distribution in the diet of H. belottii? The specimens were collected between 2006 and 2009 in seven streams in the Urucu basin using standard capture methods. Their stomachs were removed for diet composition analyses. The alimentary items were weighed and identified for subsequent analyzes related to feeding intensity by repletion index (RI%) and importance by alimentary index (AIi%). A total of 227 specimens were analyzed, with a mean standard length of 16.5±5.6 mm. The RI% values indicated that H. belottii fed more intensively during the dry season. The principal items in the diet were Formicidae (IAi% = 69.6), fragments of allochthonous exoskeleton (IAi% = 17.7), and Coleoptera (IAi% = 6.0). The composition of the diet did not vary significantly between seasons or among habitats, which may be related to the abundance of the items exploited by the species throughout the year. Hemigrammus belottii showed a generalist insectivore feeding habits which was mainly composed by allochthonous item.

O presente estudo descreve a dieta da espécie Hemigrammus belottii (Characiformes: Characidae) coletados na bacia do Rio Urucu no município de Coari, Amazonas, (Brasil), buscando responder o seguinte questionamento: Qual a influência dos períodos hidrológicos (seco e chuvoso) e da distribuição espacial na dieta de H. belottii? Os espécimes tiveram seus estômagos retirados e os itens alimentares pesados e identificados para posteriores análises relacionadas à intensidade alimentar, pelo Índice de Repleção (IR%) e pelo índice de importância alimentar (IAi%). Foi analisado um total de 227 espécimes, com comprimento padrão médio de 16,54 mm ± 5,6 mm. Baseado no IR% verificou-se para H. belottii uma maior intensidade alimentar durante o período da seca. A dieta da espécie foi composta predominantemente pelos itens Formicidae (IAi% = 69,6), fragmento de exoesqueleto alóctone (IAi% = 17,7) e Coleoptera (IAi% = 6,0), com sua composição se mostrando independente de períodos hidrológicos e de sua distribuição espacial, que pode ser atribuído à alta disponibilidade de itens alimentares utilizados pela espécie durante o ano todo. De um modo geral H. belottii evidenciou um hábito alimentar insetívoro generalista, com predomínio de itens de origem alóctone.

Hábitos alimentrrios, morfometría y estados gondales de cinco especies de pecees en diferentes períodos climáticos en el río sogamoso (santander, Cooombia) / Trophic Habits, Morphometry and Gonadal Status of Five Fish Species in Different Climatic Periods at the Río Sogamoso (Santander, Colombia)

Esta investigación determinó algunos aspectos bioecológicos de cinco especies de peces del río Sogamoso, la cual es información básica que puede permitir analizar los impactos generados por la construcción y operación de la represa Hidrosogamoso. Para cada ejemplar colectado se registraron la longitud estándar y el peso total, se calculó la relación entre el peso y la longitud (P= aLb), se determinó el estado gonadal y el coeficiente de vacuidad, y se definió la importancia de cada categoría de alimento. El bocachico (Prochilodus magdalenae) alcanzó mayor abundancia en el río en la época seca y el inicio del desove se registró en diciembre. El coeficiente de vacuidad fue alto y su dieta se basó en materia orgánica. Pimelodus blochii y P. grosskopfii registraron mayores capturas en diciembre; su dieta estuvo basada en insectos y peces. Los loricáridos Chaetostoma cf. thomsoni y Sturisoma aureum solo se capturaron en los tramos medios y altos del río. Su dieta se basó en materia orgánica. Se requiere un estudio continúo más detallado para establecer el ciclo reproductivo de Pimelodus spp. y de los loricáridos. Dada la condición de especie amenazada y su dinámica migratoria, el bocachico es una de las especies más sensibles a la construcción, el llenado y la operación de la hidroeléctrica en el río Sogamoso. Para los loricaridos la reducción de caudal del río Sogamoso puede disminuir sus hábitats y limitar la conexión con los afluentes a través de los cuales migra.

The objective of this research was to determine some bioecological aspects for five fish species of the Río Sogamoso, to generate baseline information that will permit analyze the impacts generated for the construction and operation of the Hidrosogamoso dam. For each specimen collected the standard length and total weight were recorded, the correlation between weight and length (W= aLb) was calculated, the gonadal status and the coefficient of vacuity were determined, and the importance of each food category was defined. The "bocachico" (Prochilodus magdalenae) reached greatest abundance in the river during the dry season and the beginning of spawning was recorded in December. Its vacuity coefficient was high and its diet was based on organic matter. Pimelodus blochii and P. grosskopfii reported the greatest catches in December; their diet was based on insects and fish. The Loricariids Chaetostoma cf. thomsoni and Sturisoma aureum were captured only in the middle and upper reaches of river. Their diet was based on organic matter. It is required a more detailed and continue study to set the reproductive cycle of Pimelodus spp. and Loricariids. Given the status of threatened species and its migration dynamics, the "bocachico" is one of the most sensitive species to the construction, filling and operation of the hydroelectric dam on the Río Sogamoso. For Loricariids, the reduction of Río Sogamoso flow may decrease their habitats and limit the connection to the tributaries through which they migrate.