Isolation and Identification of Fungal Strains from Fresh and Smoked Fish from the Sassandra River in Côte d’Ivoire

Introduction: Fresh and smoked fish are widely consumed in Côte d'Ivoire as everywhere in West Africa. However, these foodstuffs, due to certain processing conditions, are likely to be contaminated by molds that produce dangerous mycotoxins. Objective: This study aimed to isolate and identify fungal strains contaminating fresh and smoked fish from the Sassandra River in Côte d'Ivoire. Place and Date of the Study: Sampling was carried out in various processing sites around the Sassandra River, particularly in the towns of Soubré and Guessabo. The microbiological analysis was carried out at Jean Lorougnon Guédé University in Daloa (Ivory Coast). Methods: A total of 108 samples of fresh and smoked fish were collected. Isolation and purification of fungal strains were carried out on Sabouraud medium with chloramphenicol. The identification of isolated strains was made on the basis of morphological and cultural criteria. Results: A total of 126 fungal strains were isolated, including 87 from the Guessabo samples and 39 from the Soubré samples from 54 fresh fish and 54 smoked fish. The predominant species were Aspergillus of the Glaucus group (39%), Aspergillus niger (36%) and Penicillium sp. (25%). Conclusion: This study shows that fresh and smoked fish from the Sassandra River in Côte d'Ivoire are contaminated by several strains of molds, some of which produce mycotoxins that can cause illness in consumers depending on their concentrations. It would therefore be appropriate to improve processing techniques.

Epidemiología de la enfermedad fúngica invasora por hongos filamentosos en el período 2005 a 2015, en un hospital universitario en Santiago, Chile / Epidemiology of invasive fungal disease by filamentous fungi in the period 2005 to 2015, in a university hospital in Santiago, Chile

Resumen Introducción: La enfermedad fúngica invasora (EFI) por hongos filamentosos es cada vez más frecuente. Objetivo: Estudiar la epidemiología de la EFI en adultos hospitalizados en nuestro centro. Metodología: Estudio retrospectivo de pacientes adultos de un hospital universitario en Santiago, Chile, con EFI por hongos filamentosos entre enero de 2005 y diciembre de 2015. Resultados: Se identificaron 125 episodios, siendo 48% categoria probada, 40% probable y 11% posible según criterios EORTC/MSG, incidencia global 0,47 x 1.000 egresos, 57% pacientes masculinos y edad de 50 ± 16 años. El 66,4% tenía patología hematológica, 11,2% trasplante de órgano sólido, 11,2% enfermedad reumatológica, 11,2% otra condición. Los factores de riesgo fueron neutropenia 44%, corticoterapia 21%, inmunosupresores 13%. Los hongos más frecuentemente identificados fueron Aspergillus spp (53,6%), Mucorales (16%), Fusarium spp (8,8%), Alternaria spp (5,6%), otros filamentosos (3,2%). Todos recibieron antifúngicos, 82% monoterapia, 18% terapia combinada, hubo defocación quirúrgica en 90% de mucormicosis. La mortalidad global fue 42%. Al comparar 2005-2009 vs 2010-2015, hubo un aumento significativo de la incidencia y una tendencia a menor mortalidad en el segundo período. Conclusiones: Durante un período de 10 años, observamos un aumento de la incidencia de EFI por filamentosos, aspergilosis fue la etiología más frecuente y la mortalidad global fue 42%.

Background: Invasive fungal disease (IFD) due to filamentous fungi is increasingly common. Aim: To study the epidemiology of EFI in hospitalized adults in our center. Methods: Retrospective study of adult patients of a university hospital in Santiago, Chile, with EFI due to filamentous fungi between January 2005 and December 2015. Results: 125 episodes were identified, being 48% proven, 40% probable and 11% possible according to EORTC/MSG criteria, overall incidence was 0.47/1,000 admissions, 57% male patients and age 50 ± 16 years. 66.4% had hematological pathology, 11.2% solid organ transplant, 11.2% rheumatology diseases, 11.2% other conditions. The risk factors were neutropenia 44%, corticosteroid therapy 21%, immunosuppressants 13%. The most frequent mould identified were Aspergillus spp (53.6%), Mucorales (16%), Fusarium spp (8.8%), Alternaria spp (5.6%) and other filamentous (3.2%). All received antifungals, 82% monotherapy, 18% combined therapy, there was surgical defocation in 90% of mucormycosis. The overall mortality was 42%. When comparing 2005-2009 vs 2010-2015, there was a significant increase in incidence and a tendency to lower mortality in the second period. Conclusions: Over a period of 10 years, we observed an increase in the incidence of EFI by filamentous, aspergillosis was the most frequent etiology and the overall mortality was 42%.

Use of Plant Extracts for Substrate Sterilization and Its Effect on Competitor Moulds and Biological Efficiency of Oyster Mushroom

Mushrooms are recognized as nutritionally functional food and a source of physiologically beneficial and nontoxic medicines. Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.) is an efficient lignin degrading mushroom and can grow well on different types of lignocellulosic materials including agricultural and forest waste. Cultivation technique for oyster mushroom is very simple and the production cost is low, which gives consistent growth with high biological efficiency. Plant derivatives have shown considerable promise as an effective alternative of chemicals used in surface sterilization. To develop a suitable method for substrates treatment, six different plants extract were evaluated along with most popular chemical treatment (bavistin 75 ppm + formalin 500 ppm) for cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus florida). Chemical treatment (bavistin 75 ppm + formalin 500 ppm) was found to be most effective among all the treatments and exhibited 120.50% Biological Efficiency (B.E.). Among the phyto-extracts, Zingiber officinale was found to be excellent in controlling the growth of competitor mould fungi (114% B.E.) followed by Azadirachta indica (109.25%) and Allium cepa (98.75%). Chemically treated substrate was taken minimum (20 days) for spawn run and gave 7.10 gm average weight of sporophore followed by Zingiber officinale (22 days and 6.740 gm). In vitro study revealed the superiority of chemicals and reduced 61.80 to 70.67% mycelium growth of four contaminants. Extract of Zingiber officinale was found excellent in inhibiting the mycelium growth of Penicillium sp., Aspergillus niger and Coprinus sp. but, reported to be less effective against Sclerotium rolfsii. While, Azadirachta indica seed oil was found very effective against the mycelium growth of Sclerotium rolfsii, Penicillium sp, and Coprinus sp. Extract of Allium cepa, Lantana camera, Eucalyptus hybrida and Allium sativum showed moderate effects on the mycelium growth of competitor moulds.

Isolation and identification of toxigenic and non-toxigenic fungi in samples of medicinal plants from the market / Isolamento e identificação de fungos toxigênicos e não toxigênicos em amostras plantas medicinais do comércio

ABSTRACT: The consumption of preparations of medicinal plants has been increasing during the last decades in occidental societies. The presence of toxigenic fungi in a plant product may represent a potential risk of contamination, because of aflatoxins and ochratoxins. In this study, 12 samples of medicinal plants were analyzed in relation to the level of fungal contamination, and the presence of producers of ochratoxin A and aflatoxins was assessed by visualization of fungi using a cromatovisor in coconut milk. Most of the species found belong to the genus Cladosporium, Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium. Species producing ochratoxin A were present in 2 samples (16.7%), Melissa and Hibiscus. Species producing aflatoxin were found in samples of Jacaranda decurrens (8.33%). This study suggests that herbs, if stored improperly, can provide the growth of fungi and should be examined before consumption.

RESUMO: O consumo das plantas medicinais vem aumentando nas últimas décadas nas sociedades ocidentais, porém, a presença de fungos toxigênicos nestas plantas pode representar um risco em potencial de contaminação devido à produção de aflatoxinas e ocratoxinas. Neste trabalho, 12 amostras de plantas medicinais foram analisadas em relação ao nível de contaminação por fungos, enquanto a presença de produtores de ocratoxina A e aflatoxinas foi avaliada pela visualização em cromatovisor dos fungos em meio de leite de coco. A maioria das espécies encontradas pertence aos gêneros Cladosporium, Fusarium, Aspergillus e Penicillium. Espécies produtoras de ocratoxina A estavam presentes em 2 amostras (16,7%), Melissa e Hibisco. Espécies produtoras de aflatoxina foram encontradas na amostra de Carobinha (8,33%). Este trabalho sugere que as ervas, sendo armazenadas inadequadamente, proporcionam o crescimento de fungos e, por isso, estes devem ser examinados antes do consumo.

A clinicomycological study of onychomycosis in a rural hospital in Central India.

Background: Onychomycosis; fungal infection of nails account for about half of the nail diseases. Common site of involvement is toenails. Various etiological agents including dermatophytes, yeasts and non-dermatophytic moulds (NDM) are responsible. It is difficult to treat onychomycosis as compare to other dermatophytic infections because of the inherent slow growth of the nail. Aim: To diagnose etiological agents of onychomycosis on KOH, Calcofluor white (CFW), KOH treated Nail Clipping with Periodic Acid Schiff (KONCPA) and SDA culture. Objectives: 1) To determine the fungal etiological agents of onychomycosis. 1) To correlate clinical parameters with the mycological findings. Methods: The study was carried out in department of Microbiology, MGIMS, Sewagram, Wardha. A total of 44 cases with signs of onychomycosis were enrolled in the study which were subjected for microscopic examination by 20% KOH, CFW and KONCPA. Mycological culture was done on Sabouraud’s dextrose agar (with and without antibiotics). Results: On analysis, the positivity by 20% KOH and CFW was 45.5%, 63.4% respectively while by KONCPA it was found to be 25%. In 38.6% fungal cultures revealed growth. At present, the etiological agents were dermatophytes (12.5%), especially Trichophyton rubrum, nondermatophytic isolates (75%) include Aspergillus spp., Penicillium species, Rhizopus and Candida spp. (8.3%). In our study toenails were affected in 84% and distolateral subungual onychomycosis (DLSO) was the commonest clinical presentation. Conclusion: Along with dermatophytes, NDM and yeasts are also important etiological agents of onychomycosis in our set up.

Una nueva generación de antifúngicos para el tratamiento de las micosis superficiales / A new generation of antifungals for the treatment of dermatomycosis

Las infecciones fúngicas superficiales responden bien a los tratamientos habituales en la mayoría de los casos pero, en determinadas situaciones, constituyen un problema. En su mayoría se trata de infecciones producidas por levaduras del género Candida y Malassezia y por hongos dermatofitos. Estas infecciones han visto incrementada su prevalencia junto con la selección de determinadas especies, la reducción de la sensibilidad a los antifúngicos y la aparición de fenómenos de resistencia in vitro e in vivo. La investigación para encontrar el antifúngico ideal aún continúa y en este sentido actualmente se están ensayando distintas estrategias de investigación sobre drogas para el tratamiento sistémico y tópico de las dermatomicosis.

Superficial fungal infections frequently caused by Candida spp. and Malassezia spp yeasts and dermatophytes fungi, have good response to common treatments in the majority of cases, but in some cases failure are described. Prevalence of these infections has been increased with the selection of certain species, reduced sensitivity to antifungal agents and the emergence of in vitro and in vivo resistance phenomena. The research to find the ideal antifungal still continues and in this sense are being currently tested different strategies for research on systemic and topical drugs for dermatomycosis treatment.

Role of killer factors in the inhibitory activity of bio-control yeasts against Penicillium expansum and Aspergillus ochraceus

This work evaluated the antagonism of killer positive yeast strains (isolated from 11 samples of different frozen fruit pulps) against the strains of Penicillium expansum and Aspergillus ochraceus. Of the total 41 killer yeasts tested in YM agar, 19 showed antibiosis against P. expansum and A. ochraceus, with inhibition zone ranging from 10 to 18 mm and 10 to 19 mm, respectively. In the following step, the extracellular activity of Kluyveromyces sp. FP4(13) was tested performing the assay in YM broth. The antifungal activity of Kluyveromyces sp. FP4(13) cell-free culture supernatant (25ºC/96 h) was more effective against the conidia germination, showing inhibition rates of 93.33 and 86.44% for P. expansum and A. ochraceus, respectively. The micelial growth inhibition was 28.45 and 21.0%, respectively. The antagonism showed by the selected yeasts could be used as a promising alternative tool to reduce and control the postharvest fungal spoilage of the fruits. However, further studies should be carried out in order to better elucidate the role of innocuous characters in antagonistic microorganisms, as well as the purification and characterization of new killer toxins.

Mycotoxin in medicinal/aromatic Herbs: a review / Micotoxinas en hierbas medicinales y/o aromaticas: Revisión

Owing to their conditions of production, and sometimes to poor storage and transportation conditions, herbal products are susceptible to fungal contamination and development. This can lead to the accumulation of mycotoxins in this kind of commodities. Consequently, herbal products can be contaminated with fungal toxins, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins and other mycotoxins, which pose a serious risk to public health. This paper reviews the main aspects regarding mycotoxin contamination of medical/aromatic herbs, in the context of the importance of this product in a global market. Moreover, the effect of processing on final contamination of derived foods, as well as the analytical methodology commonly employed in fungal and mycotoxin analysis in this type of products was reviewed.

Debido a sus condiciones habituales de producción, así como a condiciones inadecuadas de almacenamiento y de transporte, los productos a base de plantas medicinales o aromáticas son susceptibles a la contaminación por mohos, lo que puede conducir a la acumulación de toxinas fúngicas tales como las aflatoxinas, ocratoxinas y otras micotoxinas, lo que supone un grave riesgo para la salud pública. Este artículo revisa los principales aspectos de la contaminación por micotoxinas de las hierbas medicinales y/o aromáticas, teniendo en cuenta el contexto de este producto en un mercado globalizado, así como el efecto del procesado sobre la contaminación final de estos productos. También se revisa la metodología más comúnmente empleada en el análisis de mohos y micotoxinas en este tipo de productos.

Profilaxis antifúngica en niños y adultos sometidos a trasplante de órganos sólidos y de precursores hematopoyéticos / Prophylaxis against fungal infections in solid organ and hematopoietic stem cells transplantation

Invasive fungal infections are an important cause of morbidity and mortality in SOT and HSCT recipients. The main species involved are Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp, less frequently Cryptococcus spp., causal agents of mucormycosis and Fusarium spp. Usually occur within the first six months post-transplant, but they do it later, especially during episodes of rejection, which maintains the state of immune system involvement. Prophylaxis recommendations are specific to each type of transplant. In liver transplantation use of fluconazole is recommended only in selected cases by high risk factor for invasive fungal infections (A1). If the patient has a high risk of aspergillosis, there are some suggestions for adults population to use amphotericin B-deoxycholate, liposomal amphotericin B or caspofungin (C2) without being validated none of these recommendations in pediatric population. In adult lung transplant patients where the risk of aspergillosis is higher than in other locations, we recommend universal prophylaxis with itraconazole 200 mg/day, nebulised liposomal amphotericin B or voriconazole (C2), no validated recommendations for pediatrics. In HSCT, universal prophylaxis is recommended only in allogeneic and autologous selected cases. The most accepted indication is fluconazole (A1), and posaconazole (A1) or micafungin (A1) in selected cases with high risk of aspergillosis.

Las infecciones fúngicas invasoras constituyen una importante causa de morbilidad y mortalidad en los pacientes receptores de TOS y TPH. Los principales agentes involucrados son Candida spp. y Aspergillus spp, menos frecuentemente Cryptococcus spp., agentes causales de mucormicosis y Fusarium spp. Se presentan habitualmente dentro de los primeros seis meses posttrasplante, pero también lo hacen en forma más tardía, especialmente durante episodios de rechazo, en que se mantiene el estado de compromiso del sistema inmune. Existen recomendaciones de proilaxis especíicas para cada tipo de trasplante. En trasplante hepático se recomienda el uso de fluconazol sólo en casos seleccionados por factores de riesgo (A1). Si existe riesgo de asper-gilosis, hay algunas sugerencias en adultos para el uso de anfotericina B-deoxicolato, anfotericina liposomal o caspofungina (todo en categoría C2), sin estar validada ninguna de estas recomendaciones en pediatría. En trasplante pulmonar en paciente adulto, donde el riesgo de aspergilosis es superior a otras localizaciones, se recomienda proilaxis universal, con itraconazol 200 mg/día, anfotericina liposomal nebulizada o voriconazol (C2), sin recomendaciones validadas para pediatría. En TPH, se recomienda proilaxis universal en trasplante alogénico y sólo para casos seleccionados en trasplantes autólogos. La indicación más aceptada es fluconazol (A1), siendo alternativas a evaluar dependiendo del riesgo de aspergilosis, posaconazol (A1) y micafungina (A1).

Efeito in vitro do óleo essencial de Eucalyptus globulus sobre o crescimento e desenvolvimento de Penicillium sp / In vitro effect of Eucalyptus globulus essential oil on Penicillium sp

O fungo Penicillium sp. é o agente causal dos bolores, considerada a principal doença pós-colheita em citros, levando à perdas na qualidade e quantidade dos frutos comercializáveis. Além de perdas econômicas, uma vez que nas perdas pós-colheitas estão inclusos os custos, transporte e armazenagem de frutos. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo verificar a ação fungitóxica do óleo essencial de Eucalyptus globulus no controle in vitro de Penicillium sp., avaliando seu crescimento micelial, produção e a germinação de esporos. O experimento foi conduzido no laboratório de Microbiologia da PUC, campus Toledo, e constituiu-se de oito tratamentos, sendo: uso do óleo essencial de eucalipto nas concentrações de 1%, 0,5%, 0,25%, 0,1%, 0,05% e 0,025% adicionados ao meio de cultura BDA (Batata Dextrose-Ágar) autoclavado, testemunha negativa (meio de cultura com adição de 40 mg de ingrediente ativo azoxystrobin/L do fungicida) e testemunha positiva (apenas meio de cultura). O delineamento experimental utilizado foi inteiramente casualizado, com cinco repetições em cada tratamento. O óleo essencial de eucalipto inibiu o crescimento de forma significativa nas concentrações de 1%, 0,5% e 0,25%, não diferindo estatisticamente do controle com o fungicida azoxystrobin. Os tratamentos apresentaram o mesmo comportamento em relação a produção de esporos. Já na germinação de esporos, as concentrações de 1% e 0,5% obtiveram controle superior ao tratamento com azoxystrobin e a concentração de 0,25%. As demais concentrações de óleo não obtiveram resultados significativos nas avaliações, igualando-se estatisticamente a testemunha positiva (BDA).

Penicillium sp. is the casual agent of moulds, considered the main citrus post-harvest disease, causing loss on the quality and quantity of marketable fruits. Besides economic loss, it can be included costs, transportation and fruit storage problems. The present work had the objective to verify the fungitoxic action of Eucalyptus globules essential oil on the in vitro control of Penicillium sp., evaluating mycelial growth, production and spores germination. The experiment was conduced on the Microbiology laboratory of PUC, Toledo campus, with eight treatments: 1%, 0,5%, 0,25%, 0,1%, 0,05% e 0,025% concentrations of eucalyptus oil added to PDA media (potato-dextrose-agar), negative control (PDA with addition of 40mg of azoxystrobin/L) and positive control (PDA media only). The experimental design was according to a completely randomized design, with five replicates each treatment. The eucalyptus essential oil inhibited significantly the growth in the 1%, 0,5% e 0,25% concentrations, not differing statistically from control with fungicide azoxystrobin. The treatments presented the same behavior for spores production. For spores germination, the 1% e 0,5% concentrations had better control than treatment with azoxystrobin and the concentration of 0,25%. Others oil concentrations did not present significative results on the evaluations, being statistically equal to positive control (PDA).

Avaliação da qualidade microbiológica do mel comercializado no extremo sul da Bahia / Evaluation of the microbiological quality of honey commercialized in Bahia extreme south region

Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar a qualidade microbiológica do mel comercializado formal e informalmente na região do extremo sul baiano, quanto à presença de coliformes totais, termotolerantes, bolores e leveduras. Foram analisadas amostras de mel adquiridas no comércio formal e informal. As análises microbiológicas das amostras foram de enumeração de coliformes totais e termotolerantes, por meio do Número Mais Provável (NMP) e contagem de bolores e leveduras. Foram analisadas 18 amostras, sendo dez adquiridas no comércio formal e oito no informal. Todas estavam isentas de contaminação por bactérias do grupo coliformes, tanto totais como termotolerantes, no entanto oito (44,44%) - quatro do comércio formal e quatro do informal - continham bolores e leveduras. De acordo com as características gerais das amostras de mel analisadas neste estudo apenas quatro (22,22%) encontravam-se próprias para o consumo, segundo os padrões exigidos pelo Regulamento Técnico para Fixação e Identidade e Qualidade do Mel.

The objective of this study is to analyze the microbiological quality of honey commercialized in Bahia's extreme south region, in order to search for the presence of total and thermo tolerant coliforms, moulds and yeasts. Honey samples, eight of which acquired in the formal commerce and ten obtained in the informal commerce were analyzed. The microbiological analyses of samples consisted of enumerating total and thermo tolerant coliforms through the Most Probable Number (MPN) and the counting of moulds and yeasts. All samples were contamination free for coliforms. However, eight (44,44%) of the 18 (100%) samples obtained in both formal and informal commerce contained moulds and yeasts. In accordance to the general characteristics of the samples of honey analyzed in this study, only four (22,22%) met proper conditions for consumption.

Actualización en pruebas de susceptibilidad antifúngica / An update on antifungal susceptibility testing

Due to increasing of invasive fungal infections and emergeney of antifungal drugs resistant fungi, standardized methods of antifungal susceptibility testing (AST) have been developed. The Clinical Laboratory Standards Instutute (CLSI) and the European for Committee Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) have guidelines for susceptibility of yeasts by broth microdilution (M27-A2 and E. Dis. 7.1 documents, respectively). Both are equivalent, although they present methodological and interpretative breakpoints differences. In addition, the CLSI have the M38-A (for filamentous fungi) and M44-A (disk diffusion) documents, whereas EUCAST is developing a document for Aspergillus spp. Furthermore, commercial methods are available that display good correlation with the methods of reference such as E-test®, Sensititre® and Vitek2®. The interpretation of the results must be careful because the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (CIM) is difficult for fungi, there are host factors involved and not always there is a correlation between MIC and clinical outeome. Due to these methods are laborious and require trained personnel, to ask for AST to a reference laboratory is recommendable.

Debido al aumento en las infecciones fúngicas invasores y a la emergencia de hongos resistentes a los antifúngicos, ha sido necesario desarrollar métodos estandarizados de susceptibilidad antifúngica. El Clinical Laboratory Standards Instutute (CLSI) y el European Committee for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) han elaborado guías para susceptibilidad de levaduras por microdilución en caldo (documentos M27-A2 y E. Dis. 7.1, respectivamente). Ambos son equivalentes, aunque presentan diferencias metodológicas y en sus puntos de corte. El CLSI ha desarrollado los documentos M38-A (hongos filamentosos) y M44-A (difusión en disco), mientras que EUCAST trabaja en un documento para Aspergillus sp. Por otra parte, existen métodos comerciales que presentan buena correlación con los métodos de referencia como E-test®, Sensititre® y Vitek2®. La interpretación de los resultados debe ser cuidadosa pues la determinación de la concentración inhibitoria mínima (CIM) es muy dificultosa para hongos, hay factores del hospedero involucrados y no siempre hay una correlación entre la CIM y la respuesta a tratamiento. Como estas técnicas, en general, son laboriosas y requieren de personal entrenado, es recomendable derivar los estudios de susceptibilidad a un laboratorio de referencia.

Successive mycological nail tests for onychomycosis: a strategy to improve diagnosis efficiency

Onychomycosis is a fungal infection of nails caused by dermatophytes, yeasts and moulds, accounting for about 50 percent of onychopathies. A high frequency of onychomycosis caused by Candida species has been reported during the last few years in northeast Brazil, as well as in other regions of the world. A clinical diagnosis of onychomycosis needs to be confirmed through laboratory exams. We evaluated the importance of serial repetition of direct microscopic exams and fungal culture for the diagnosis of onychomycosis in the city of Fortaleza, Ceará, in northeast Brazil. We first made a retrospective study of 127 patients with onychomycosis, identifying the fungi that had been isolated from fingernails and toenails. We then made a prospective study of 120 patients, who were submitted to three successive mycological examinations. Ungual residues were scraped off and directly examined with a microscope and fungal cultures were made. In the retrospective study, in which only one sample was analyzed, the incidence of onychomycosis was 25.0 percent. In our prospective study, in which we had data from successive mycological examinations, 37.8 percent had onychomycosis. The most commonly isolated fungi in both studies were yeasts from the genera Candida, especially C albicans, C. parapsilosis and C. tropicalis. We found a high proportion of onychomycosis caused by Candida species. We also concluded that serial repetition of direct microscopic examination and fungal culture, with intervals of 2-5 days improved the diagnosis of onychomycosis. We suggest that this laboratorial strategy is necessary for accurate diagnosis of this type of mycosis, especially when the standard procedures fail to diagnose fungal infection, despite strong clinical suspicion.

Review on Biosorption of Heavy Metal by Moulds / 微生物学通报

Heavy metal treatment in wastewater by biosorption using moulds was introduced. Different uptake capacities of several different moulds were reviewed. Some factors affecting biosorption were summarized. The mechanism of moulds adsorption and techniques of immobilization were also discussed. In addition, the development tendency of heavy metal treatment in wastewater by biosorption using moulds was envisioned.