Cerebral localization of the mind and higher functions: the beginnings / Localização cerebral da mente e das funções superiores: os primórdios

Abstract The debates about the mind and its higher functions, and attempts to locate them in the body, have represented a subject of interest of innumerable sages since ancient times. The doubt concerning the part of the body that housed these functions, the heart (cardiocentric doctrine) or the brain (cephalocentric doctrine), drove the search. The Egyptians, millennia ago, held a cardiocentric view. A very long time later, ancient Greek scholars took up the theme anew, but remained undecided between the heart and the brain, a controversy that lasted for centuries. The cephalocentric view prevailed, and a new inquiry ensued about the location of these functions within the brain, the ventricles or the nervous tissue, which also continued for centuries. The latter localization, although initially inaccurate, gained traction. However, it represented only a beginning, as further studies in the centuries that followed revealed more precise definitions and localizations of the higher mental functions.

Resumo Os debates sobre a mente e suas funções superiores, e as tentativas de estabelecer suas localizações no corpo, foram objeto de interesse de inúmeros sábios desde os tempos mais remotos. A dúvida quanto à parte do corpo que abrigava tais funções, o coração (doutrina cardiocêntrica) ou o cérebro (doutrina cefalocêntrica), abriu as buscas. Os egípcios, há milênios, mantinham um ponto de vista cardiocêntrico. Muito tempo depois, antigos acadêmicos gregos retomaram o tema, mas permaneceram indecisos entre o coração e o cérebro, uma controvérsia que durou séculos. O ponto de vista cefalocêntrico predominou, e seguiu-se uma nova questão, quanto ao lugar dessas funções no cérebro, os ventrículos ou o tecido nervoso, que também durou séculos. Esta última localização, apesar de inicialmente equivocada, prosperou. Entretanto, esta representou apenas um começo, já que mais estudos, nos séculos seguintes, revelaram definições e localizações mais precisas para as funções mentais superiores.

Central activities of hydroalcoholic extract from Lafoensia pacari A. St.-Hil. stem bark / Atividades centrais do extrato de Lafoensia pacari A. St.- Hil. da casca do caule

Lafoensia pacari A. St.-Hil. can be found from Amapá to Rio Grande do Sul states, and also in Paraguay and Bolivia. It is popularly known as pacari or mangava-brava and is used to promote weight loss, as an anti-thermal or tonic, to treat gastritis, ulcers, scarring, itching, discouragement, and cancer. In the open field tests, the hydroalcoholic extract from L. pacari stem bark (HEP) decreased the number of rearings, number of invaded squares, and increased immobility time compared to control animals. In the pentobarbital-induced sleep time test, HEP decreased latency time to sleep and increased sleeping time. In the rota-rod test, no changes in the studied parameters were observed. In the elevated plus maze, HEP increased the percentage time and percentage entries in the open arms, indicating that this extract exerts an anxiolytic-like activity.

Lafoensia pacari A. St.-Hil., uma espécie vegetal presente no Brasil, do Amapá ao Rio Grande do Sul, no Paraguai e na Bolívia, é popularmente conhecida como pacari ou mangava-brava e é utilizada como emagrecedor, cicatrizante, antitérmico, tônico e para tratar gastrite, úlcera, coceira, desânimo e câncer. No teste do campo aberto, o tratamento com o extrato hidro-alcoólico de pacari (HEP) reduziu o número de rearings e o número de quadrados invadidos além de aumentar o tempo de imobilidade dos animais em relação ao controle. No sono induzido por pentobarbital sódico o tratamento com HEP causou redução na latência e aumento na duração do sono. No rota-rod, o tratamento com HEP não alterou os parâmetros observados. No teste de labirinto em cruz elevado, com o tratamento com HEP foi observado aumento do percentual do tempo de permanência e de entradas nos braços abertos, caracterizando uma atividade tipo ansiolítica.

Enriquecimento ambiental como estratégia para promover a neurogênese na doença de Alzheimer: possível participação da fosfolipase A2: [revisão] / Environmental enrichment as strategy to promote neurogenesis in Alzheimer disease: possible participation of phospholipase A2: [review]

CONTEXTO: Com a descoberta de que a neurogênese constitutiva persiste no cérebro adulto, surgiu a hipótese na literatura de que a doença de Alzheimer (DA) poderia ser superada, ou pelo menos melhorada, visto que a geração de novos neurônios poderia ajudar a compensar a perda de neurônios na doença. OBJETIVOS: Neste trabalho, foi revisada a literatura sobre a neurogênese endógena no cérebro de sujeitos com DA e modelos animais de DA, os efeitos de atividade cognitiva sobre a neurogênese, e a relação entre a enzima fosfolipase A2 (PLA2) e a neurogênese. MÉTODOS: A base de dados MedLine foi pesquisada utilizando as palavras-chave doença de Alzheimer, atividade cognitiva, fosfolipase A2, neurogênese e neuritogênese. RESULTADOS: A revisão da literatura evidenciou neuroproliferação aumentada no cérebro com DA, no entanto, os novos neurônios falham em se diferenciar em neurônios maduros. Uma estratégia não farmacológica, ambiente enriquecido, aumenta a neurogênese (incluindo amadurecimento neuronal) em animais experimentais. Relação entre PLA2 e neurogênese tem sido demonstrada em modelos experimentais in vitro e in vivo. CONCLUSÃO: Os dados indicam que o enriquecimento ambiental (com estimulações cognitiva e física) poderia ser uma estratégia apropriada para promover a neurogênese endógena na DA e sugerem a participação da PLA2 na neurogênese promovida por estimulação cognitiva.

BACKGROUND: With the discovery that constitutive neurogenesis persists in the adult brain, has emerged the hypothesis in the literature that Alzheimer disease (AD) could be overcome, or at least ameliorated, since the generation of new neurons might help to compensate for the loss of neurons in the disease. OBJECTIVES: In this work the literature on endogenous neurogenesis in the brain of subjects with AD and animal models of AD, the effects of cognitive activity on neurogenesis, and the relationship between the enzyme phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and neurogenesis was reviewed. METHODS: MedLine database was searched using the keywords Alzheimer disease, cognitive activity, phospholipase A2, neurogenesis, and neuritogenesis. RESULTS: The literature review evidenced increased neuroproliferation in AD brain, however, the new neurons fail to differentiate into mature neurons. A non-pharmacological strategy, enriched environment, increases neurogenesis (including neuronal maturation) in experimental animals. Relationship between PLA2 and neurogenesis has been demonstrated in in vitro and in vivo experimental models. DISCUSSION: The data indicate that environmental enrichment (with cognitive and physical stimulations) might be a suitable strategy to promote endogenous neurogenesis in AD, and suggest the participation of PLA2 in the neurogenesis promoted by cognitive stimulation.

Postoperative mental functions in patients with frontal meningiomas

The meninges [dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater] are the site of numerous pathological lesions including inflammation and neoplasm Meningiomas are the most frequently observed lesions and the most common of primary meningeal tumours. Over the years, meningiomas has been histologically classified and some entities have been added to the cadre of meningioma variants, while others have been designated as other types of tumours. The 200 revision of the World Health Organisation [WHO] grading system provided diagnostic guidelines. Most meningiomas are biologically benign and correspond to the WHO grade. However, certain meningiomas have an increased tendency to recur or follow an aggressive clinical behavior and are assigned an WHO grade and have a substantially increased incidence of recurrence. Rhabdoid meningioma, papillary meningioma and anaplastic meningioma corresponding to WHO grade have an even higher incidence of recurrence and may be associate with systemic metastasis or brain invasion. There is some information regarding the nature of mental deficits caused by intracranial meningiomas. In this study the authors examined the mental functioning of patients with frontal meningiomas. Twenty-one patients with frontal meningiomas were examined for various neurological symptoms after surgery. Observed neurological symptoms were memory deficits [verbal and fungal], attention and executive functions. The time period between onset of the effect on mental functions of meningioma and postoperative observations ranged from 2-3 months. Postoperative findings revealed a few or no differences in memory or executive functions, although, a postoperative improvement in attentional function was observed. The results of the study indicate that the surgical removal of frontal meningiomas does not impair patients' mental functioning

Effect of low intensity and very high frequency electromagnetic radiation on occupationally exposed personnel / 中华劳动卫生职业病杂志

<p><b>OBJECTIVE</b>To investigate the effect of low intensity and very high frequency (VHF) electromagnetic radiation (170 MHz) on nervous system function and serum enzymes and immune function in human subjects with occupational exposure to VHF.</p><p><b>METHODS</b>To measure the intensity of VHF and other environmental factors on the spot, to hold the questionnaire about chief complaints, to examine the rheoencephalography and the neurobehavior function, to analyze ALT, AST, ALP and LDH, and IgA, IgM and IgG in experimental group and control group.</p><p><b>RESULTS</b>The intensity of VHF (direction of antenna: 0 degrees, 10 m and 135 degrees, 20 m) was higher than that of national standard on-the-spot. The incidences of symptoms such as headache, insomnia and amnesia etc. was significantly higher in experimental group (P < 0.01). Rheoencephalography indicated that the raising time of both left [(0.155 3 +/- 0.057 9) s] and right [(0.154 1 +/- 0.059 2) s] in the experimental group after exposure were significantly longer than before exposure [(0.104 4 +/- 0.030 2) s, (0.103 2 +/- 0.030 4) s respectively] or in the control [(0.118 5 +/- 0.056 8) s, (0.117 7 +/- 0.057 5) s respectively, (P < 0.01)]. Neurobehavior function test showed that digital symbol, digital span and pursuit aiming test were decreased after exposure in the experimental group (P < 0.01). Serum enzyme analysis showed that AST, ALP and LDH were significantly increased after exposure in the experimental group (P < 0.01). No marked change was found in IgA level, while the levels of IgM and IgG after exposure in the experimental group especially the latter were significantly increased (P < 0.01).</p><p><b>CONCLUSIONS</b>Low-intensity VHF radiation can decrease the nervous system function in occupationally exposed personnel and induce increase in some kinds of enzymes and immunoglobulins.</p>

La Fisiología y el problema de la correlación entre lo biológico y lo social / Physiology and the problem of correlation between the biological and the social aspect

El problema de la correlación entre lo biológico y lo social ha constituido una preocupación filosófica y ha sido objeto de estudio de múltiples investigadores vinculados a las Ciencias Médicas. Señalándose en la literatura el predominio en las Ciencias Médicas de la tendencia a la absolutización de lo biológico menospreciando la acción de lo social. Con los antecedentes anteriores se estudió cómo se ha comportado dicha correlación a través del desarrollo histórico de la Fisiología, cómo se pone de manifiesto en la función del organismo humano y se enfatiza la importancia del enfoque del hombre como un ser social. Se concluye que la Fisiología antes del siglo XIX fue eminentemente biologicista, se comenzó a aceptar el carácter social del hombre con el desarrollo del estudio de la actividad nerviosa superior, y existen hoy en día múltiples evidencias de la esencia social del hombre

The problem of the correlation between the biological and the social aspect has been a philosophical preoccupation and has been studied by many researchers linked to Medical Sciences. The predominance in Medical Sciences of the trend to make the biological aspect absolute, underestimating the action of the social aspect, is stressed in literature. Taking into consideration the previous elements, it has been studied the behaviour of this correlation through the historical development of Physiology and how it manifests in the function of the human body. Emphasis is made on the importance of the approach of man as a social being. It is concluded that Physiology before the XIX century had an eminently biological character . The social character of man started to be accepted with the development of the study of the higher nervous activity and there are at present multiple evidences of the social essence of man

La figura compleja de Rey: propiedades psicométricas / Rey's Complex Figure: psychometric characteristics

Este trabajo presenta los resultados de la aplicación de la Figura Compleja de Rey, a una muestra de 3,562 sujetos, con un rango de edad de 8 a 80 años, a partir de los cuales se calcularon las medias y desviaciones estándar para los ensayos de copia y de memoria del instrumento, en distintos grupos de edad. El análisis psicométrico reportó que por medio del nuevo sistema de calificación utilizado, todas las unidades perceptuales discriminan adecuadamente los puntajes altos de los bajos en ambos ensayos. La confiabilidad alcanzada fue de (Ó = 0.828 para la copia y de Ó = 0.783 para la memoria). El análisis factorial mostró que las 18 unidades perceptuales se agrupan en forma congruente en cuatro factores, que explican el 43.6 por ciento de la varianza total para la copia y el 38.6 por ciento para la memoria. Los resultados aquí presentados pueden considerarse como parámetros de estandarización válidos y confiables para los sujetos de 8 a 18 años de edad. De acuerdo con los resultados obtenidos, la población de mayor edad requiere todavía de un nuevo diseño de muestreo

Percepçäo, agnosias e memória: uma revisäo / Perception, agnosia and memory: a review

Agnosias ocorrem quando há lesöes situadas no córtex de associaçäo. As teorias clássicas consideravam que os neurônios do córtex de associaçäo eram responsáveis pela sintese e armazenamento de informaçöes. Entretanto, este conceito näo obedecia a princípios neurofisiológicos. Segundo as idéias atuais, os neurônios dessas regiöes de convergência polissensorial desenvolveram suas conexöes sinápticas a partir de aprendizado e quando estimulados atuam através de retroativaçäo sobre neurônios de diversas áreas cerebrais, reconstituindo o padräo de atividade neuronal responsável pela percepçäo

La actividad nerviosa superior / Higher nervous activity

Se expone la Actividad Nerviosa Superior considerándola como una nueva ciencia que inicia su camino gracias a la ingente labor de I.P. Pavlov. Se explica como la corteza cerebral a través de sus conexiones con la sub-corteza y por medio de ésta con todo el organismo va a constituir el centro superior de regulación orgánica. Se plantea como el reflejo condicionado, proceso al mismo tiempo fisiológico y psíquico, termina con el esquema dualista que existía en las ciencias del hombre. Se expone como con ayuda de los reflejos condicionados se integran todos los aspectos de la actividad del organismo: vegetativa, de conducta, psíquica

The Development of I. P. Pavlov's Conditioned Reflex Theory / 의사학

This paper deals with the theory of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov(1849-1936), a Russian physiologist, who presented for the first time the systematic theory of the function of the brain that controls the whole behavior of animals, i.e. higher nervous activity through experimental studies. This paper, principally based on Lectures on Conditioned Reflexed(1928), investigates the development of conditioned reflex theory from its beginning by dividing it into three periods. First, during the period from 1898 to 1906, the fundamental concept of conditioned reflex was established and the study of conditioned reflex became an independent discipline. From 1907 to 1916, the second period, Pavlov theorized on higher nervous activity on the basis of extensive data from his laboratory experiments of conditioned reflex. And Pavlov complemented conditioned reflex theory, during the third period from 1916 to 1928, and extended the boundaries of it through applications of conditioned reflex theory to psychopathology and typology. The study contributes to the understanding that conditioned reflex theory was historically developed, and not presented as a complete form from the beginning, and that Pavlov intended to study the higher nervous activity through the method of neurophysiology.

Effects of verapamil and nifedipine on psychomotor performance in human subjects.

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of two structurally dissimilar calcium channel blockers, verapamil (a phenylalkylamine) in a single dose of 40 and 80 mg, and nifedipine (a dihydropyridine) in a single dose of 10 and 15 mg, on psychomotor performance and higher mental functions in human volunteers. Placebo and diazepam (5 mg) were used as negative and positive controls respectively. For evaluating these functions, tests employed were arithmetic ability, visual and auditory reaction time, letter (alphabet) cancellation, rapid fire arithmetic deviation and short term memory for playing cards. Careful record was kept of the heart rate, blood pressure and side effects of the therapy, each time the psychomotor tests were performed. Verapamil, both in 40 and 80 mg dose, was found to impair the performance of subjects to a significant extent in auditory reaction time, letter cancellation and short term memory. These effects were similar to those observed with administration of diazepam. With nifedipine, impairment in performance was observed only in rapid arithmetic deviation test. Thus, calcium channel antagonists, specially verapamil, impaired psychomotor performance of human subjects in our study.

Localization of the microelectrode tip combining a rapid procedure method and marking with pontamine sky blue

Uno de los aspectos más relevantes del registro de la actividad unitaria celular en mamíferos, es la localización precisa de los sitios registrados. El asignar a las neuronas o grupos neuronales una colección definida, muchas veces permite establecer la función que estas estructuras tienen en el SNC. Es por esto que hemos desarrollado un método para identificar las neuromas estudiadas, utilizando micropipetas de vidrio que contienen una solución de azul de pontamina al 4% ne KCL 1M. Al finalizar los registros de actividad neuronal unitaria se hace una inyección iontofeorética, se sacrifican los animales, se fijan y se corta el tejido en microtomo de congelación. Se aplica la técnica de procedimiento rápido para obtener una fotografía de la zona de interés. Este método es fácil y rapido de realizar, y tiene la ventaja de que los mismos cortes del tejido pueden ser usados para procedimientos histológicos posteriores

Cardiac activity disease by experimental interference in brain processes.

In 65 dogs by the method of motor alimentary condition reflexes and delayed reaction, an experimental model of the informational disease was created, which produced chronic increase of the heart rate and significant change in the segment of the ECG.

Semiologia neuropsicológica / Neuropsychological semiology

Os autores apresentam versäo simplificada da investigaçäo neuropsicológica segundo Luria, baseando-se naquela de Christensen. É feita "qualificaçäo" dos sintomas que säo associados e correlacionados a estrutura anatômicas cerebrais, segundo o conceito de sistemas funcionais.

Analise clinica e estudo evolutivo de uma crianca com cisto porencefalico extenso do hemisferio direito. / Clinical analysis and evolutive study of a child with extensive porencephalic cyst of the right hemisphere

Estudo de paciente do sexo masculino, com cinco anos de idade, com um cisto porencefalico extenso no hemisferio direito. Discute-se a relacao entre funcao mental e estrutura nervosa e analisa-se a evolucao mental da crianca que apresentou bom rendimento nas areas verbais e baixo rendimento nas funcoes intelectuais que dependiam de trabalho visuomotor construtivo e espacial, considerados normalmente mais dependentes do hemisferio direito