Estimation of the costs of invasive cervical cancer treatment in Brazil: A micro-costing study / Estimativa dos custos do tratamento do câncer do colo do útero invasivo no Brasil: um estudo de microcustos

Abstract Objective Themain objective of the present study was to estimate the annual treatment costs of invasive cervical cancer (ICC) per patient at an oncology center in Brazil from a societal perspective by considering direct medical, direct nonmedical, and indirect costs. Methods A cost analysis descriptive study, in which direct medical, direct nonmedical, and indirect costs were collected using a microcosting approach, was conducted between May 2014 and July 2016 from a societal perspective. The study population consisted of women diagnosed with ICC admitted to a tertiary hospital in Recife, state of Pernambuco, Brazil. The annual cost per patient was estimated in terms of the value of American Dollars (US$) in 2016. Results From a societal perspective, the annual ICC treatment cost per patient was US $ 2,219.73. Direct medical costs were responsible for 81.2% of the total value, of which radiotherapy and outpatient chemotherapy had the largest share. Under the base-case assumption, the estimated cost to the national budget of a year of ICC treatment in the Brazilian population was US$ 25,954,195.04. Conclusion We found a high economic impact of health care systems treating ICC in a poor region of Brazil. These estimates could be applicable to further evaluations of the cost-effectiveness of preventing and treating ICC.

Resumo Objetivo O objetivo principal do presente estudo foi estimar os custos anuais por paciente do tratamento do câncer do colo do útero (CCU) invasivo em um centro de oncologia no Brasil, sob a perspectiva da sociedade, considerando os custos diretos médicos, diretos não médicos e indiretos. Métodos Foi realizado um estudo descritivo de análise de custos, no qual os custos médicos diretos, não médicos diretos e indiretos foram coletados por meio de uma abordagem de microcustos, realizado entre maio de 2014 e julho de 2016 sob a perspectiva da sociedade. A população do estudo foi composta por mulheres diagnosticadas com CCU invasivo internadas em um hospital terciário em Recife, PE, Brasil. O custo anual por paciente foi estimado emtermos de dólares americanos (US$) para o ano de 2016. Resultados O custo anual do tratamento do CCU invasivo sob a perspectiva da sociedade foi de US$ 2.219,73 por paciente. Os custos médicos diretos foram responsáveis por 81,2% do valor total, dos quais a radioterapia e a quimioterapia ambulatorial tiveram a maior participação. Sob o pressuposto do caso base, o custo estimado para o orçamento nacional de um ano de tratamento do CCU invasivo na população brasileira foi de US$ 25.954.195,04. Conclusão Foi encontrado um alto impacto econômico dos sistemas de saúde para o tratamento do CCU invasivo em uma região pobre do Brasil. Essas estimativas poderão ser aplicáveis emavaliações adicionais do custo-efetividade da prevenção e tratamento do CCU.

Simple but not simpler: a systematic review of Markov models for economic evaluation of cervical cancer screening

The aim of this study was to critically evaluate the quality of the models used in economic evaluations of screening strategies for cervical cancer prevention. We systematically searched multiple databases, selecting model-based full economic evaluations (cost-effectiveness analyses, cost-utility analyses, and cost-benefit analyses) of cervical cancer screening strategies. Two independent reviewers screened articles for relevance and performed data extraction. Methodological assessment of the quality of the models utilized formal checklists, and a qualitative narrative synthesis was performed. Thirty-eight articles were reviewed. The majority of the studies were conducted in high-income countries (82%, n=31). The Pap test was the most used screening strategy investigated, which was present in 86% (n=33) of the studies. Half of the studies (n=19) used a previously published Markov model. The deterministic sensitivity analysis was performed in 92% (n=35) of the studies. The mean number of properly reported checklist items was 9 out of the maximum possible 18. Items that were better reported included the statement of decision problem, the description of the strategies/comparators, the statement of time horizon, and information regarding the disease states. Compliance with some items of the checklist was poor. The Markov models for economic evaluation of screening strategies for cervical cancer varied in quality. The following points require improvement: 1) assessment of methodological, structural, heterogeneity, and parameter uncertainties; 2) model type and cycle length justification; 3) methods to account for heterogeneity; and 4) report of consistency evaluation (through calibration and validation methods).

Desigualdades socioeconômicas e regionais na cobertura de exames citopatológicos do colo do útero / Desigualdades socioeconómicas y regionales en la cobertura de exámenes citopatológicos del cuello uterino / Socioeconomic and regional inequalities of pap smear coverage

RESUMO Objetivos Identificar desigualdades socioeconômicas e regionais na cobertura de exames citopatológicos do colo do útero no Rio Grande do Sul. Métodos Estudo ecológico utilizou dados dos sistemas de informação em saúde de 2011-2012 para estimar coberturas anuais de exames para todas as mulheres residentes e para as não beneficiárias de planos privados de saúde. Desigualdades na cobertura foram estimadas conforme o Índice de Vulnerabilidade Social Municipal, macrorregiões e regiões de saúde. Resultados A prevalência de mulheres não beneficiarias de planos privados de saúde variou de 38,1% a 94,2% entre regiões de saúde. A cobertura estadual foi 17,3% para todas as residentes e 23,8% para as não beneficiárias de planos privados. As maiores coberturas ocorreram nos municípios em maior vulnerabilidade social e nas regiões com maior prevalência de planos privados. Conclusões A prevalência de planos privados de saúde deve ser considerada em estudos da cobertura de serviços pelo Sistema Único de Saúde.

RESUMEN Objetivos Identificar desigualdades socioeconómicas y regionales en la cobertura de exámenes citopatológicos del cuello uterino en Rio Grande do Sul. Métodos Estudio ecológico utilizó datos de los sistemas de información en salud de 2011-2012 para estimar coberturas anuales de exámenes para la totalidad de mujeres residentes y para no beneficiarias de planes privados de salud. Se estimaron las desigualdades según el Índice de Vulnerabilidad Social Municipal, las macroregiones y las regiones de salud. Resultados La prevalencia de mujeres no beneficiarias de planes privados de salud tuvo una variación de 38.1% a 94.2% entre las regiones de salud. La cobertura del estado fue de 17.3% para la totalidad de residentes y el 23.8% para no beneficiarias de planes privados. Las mayores coberturas sucedieron en los municipios de mayor vulnerabilidad social y regiones con mayor prevalencia de planes privados. Conclusiones La prevalencia de los planes privados de salud debe ser considerada en los estudios de cobertura de servicios del Sistema Único de Salud (SUS).

ABSTRACT Objectives To identify socioeconomic and regional inequalities of pap smear coverage in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. Methods An ecological study based on data of the 2011-2012 national health information system to estimate the annual coverage of pap smears for the overall female population of the state and for women without private health insurance. We estimated annual pap smear coverage according to the Municipal Social Vulnerability Index and health macro-regions and regions of the state. Results The percentage of women without private health insurance ranged from 38.1% to 94.2% in the health regions. Pap smear coverage was 17.3% for the overall female population and 23.8% for women without private health insurance. Pap smear coverage was higher in more socially vulnerable municipalities and regions with a higher percentage of women with private health insurance. Conclusions The prevalence of private health insurance should be considered in studies that address the coverage of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS).

Custo-efetividade de um programa de rastreamento organizado de câncer de mama no Sul do Brasil / Cost-effectiveness of an organized breast cancer screening program in Southern Brazil / Coste-efectividad de un programa organizado para la detección precoz del cáncer de mama en el sur de Brasil

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o custo-efetividade de um programa organizado de rastreamento mamográfico de câncer de mama implementado na cidade de Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil (Núcleo Mama Porto Alegre - NMPOA). Foi construído modelo de Markov para estimar a relação de custo-efetividade incremental do NMPOA em comparação à situação atual de atenção ao câncer de mama no SUS, em coorte hipotética de mulheres de 40-69 anos com risco de desenvolver câncer de mama. Os parâmetros foram coletados do NMPOA e da literatura nacional. Na estratégia NMPOA, a efetividade foi modelada levando-se em conta a real adesão da população participante do rastreamento. A efetividade foi medida em anos de vida ajustados para qualidade (QALY). A relação de custoefetividade incremental no caso base foi de R$ 13.426,00 por QALY. Esse resultado foi pouco sensível à variação dos principais parâmetros do modelo nas análises de sensibilidade. Considerando o limiar usualmente sugerido como bastante atrativo do ponto de vista econômico no Brasil, o rastreamento do câncer de mama nos moldes do NMPOA é custo-efetivo em cidades com alta incidência deste tipo de câncer.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of an organized breast cancer mammographic screening program implemented in Porto Alegre (Núcleo Mama Porto Alegre - NMPOA), Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. A Markov model was constructed to estimate the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of NMPOA compared to current BC diagnosis and care in the Brazilian public health system, in a hypothetical cohort of women aged 40-69 years at risk of developing breast cancer. Model parameters were collected from NMPOA and the national literature. In the NMPOA strategy, effectiveness was modeled taking into account the actual observed screening adherence. Effectiveness was measured in quality-adjusted life years (QALYs). Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio in the base case was R$ 13,426 per QALY. This result was not sensitive to variation in the main model parameters in sensitivity analyses. Considering the threshold usually suggested as highly attractive in Brazil, breast cancer screening as performed in NMPOA is cost-effective in cities with high incidence of breast cancer.

El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el coste-efectividad de un programa organizado para el diagnóstico precoz con mamografía del cáncer de mama, implementado en Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil (Núcleo Mama Porto Alegre -NMPOA). Se utilizó el modelo de Markov, con el fin de estimar la tasa de costeefectividad incremental de NMPOA, comparada con la situación actual en lo referente a la atención del cáncer de mama en el sistema público de salud brasileño. El estudio se realizó en una cohorte hipotética de mujeres entre 40-69 años con riesgo de cáncer de mama. Los parámetros se obtuvieron del NMPOA y literatura nacional. En la estrategia del NMPOA, la eficacia se modeló teniendo en cuenta la adhesión real de la población al programa. La efectividad se midió en años de vida ajustados por calidad (QALY). La tasa de coste-efectividad incremental en el caso base fue R$ 13.426,00 por QALY. Este resultado no fue sensible a la variación de los principales parámetros del modelo en el análisis de sensibilidad. Teniendo en cuenta el umbral frecuentemente aceptado como muy alto económicamente en Brasil, un programa similar al NMPOA es coste-efectivo en ciudades con alta incidencia de cáncer de mama.

Health and economic impact of human papillomavirus 16 and 18 vaccination of preadolescent girls and cervical cancer screening of adult women in Peru / Repercusiones sanitarias y económicas de la vacunación de niñas preadolescentes contra los tipos 16 y 18 del virus del papiloma humano y el tamizaje del cáncer cervicouterino en las mujeres adultas en el Perú

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the benefits, cost-effectiveness (i.e., value for money), and required financial costs (e.g., affordability) of adding human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination to Peru's cervical cancer screening program. METHODS: Evidence (e.g., coverage, delivery costs) from an HPV vaccination demonstration project conducted in Peru was combined with epidemiological data in an empirically calibrated mathematical model to assess screening (HPV DNA testing three to five times per lifetime) and HPV vaccination under different cost, coverage, and efficacy assumptions. Model outcomes included lifetime risk of cancer reduction, cancer cases averted, lives saved, average life expectancy gains, short-term financial costs, and discounted long-term economic costs. RESULTS: Status quo low levels of screening (e.g., cytologic screening at 10.0% coverage) reduced lifetime risk of cervical cancer by 11.9%, compared to not screening. Adding vaccination of preadolescent girls at a coverage achieved in the demonstration program (82.0%) produced an additional 46.1% reduction, and would cost less than US$ 500 per year of life saved (YLS) at ~US$ 7/dose or ~US$ 1 300 at ~US$ 20/dose. One year of vaccination was estimated to cost ~US$ 5 million at ~US$ 5/dose or ~US$ 16 million at ~US$ 20/dose, including programmatic costs. Enhanced screening in adult women combined with preadolescent vaccination had incremental cost-effectiveness ratios lower than Peru's 2005 per capita gross domestic product (GDP; US$ 2 852, in 2009 US$), and would be considered cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: Preadolescent HPV vaccination, followed by enhanced HPV DNA screening in adult women, could prevent two out of three cervical cancer deaths. Several strategies would be considered "good value" for resources invested, provided vaccine prices are low. While financial costs imply substantial immediate investments, the high-value payoff should motivate creative mechanisms for financing and scale-up of delivery programs.

OBJETIVO: Calcular los beneficios, la rentabilidad (relación costo-efectividad), y los costos financieros (asequibilidad) de añadir la vacunación contra el virus del papiloma humano (VPH) al programa de tamizaje del cáncer cervicouterino en el Perú. MÉTODOS: Se combinaron los datos probatorios (por ejemplo, cobertura, costos de prestación) de un proyecto piloto de vacunación contra el VPH llevado a cabo en el Perú con datos epidemiológicos, en un modelo matemático calibrado empíricamente para evaluar el tamizaje (prueba de ADN del VPH tres a cinco veces durante toda la vida) y la vacunación contra el VPH, según diferentes supuestos de costo, cobertura y eficacia. Los resultados del modelo incluían la reducción del riesgo de cáncer durante toda la vida, los casos de cáncer evitados, las vidas salvadas, los incrementos de la esperanza media de vida, los costos financieros a corto plazo y los costos económicos a largo plazo actualizados. RESULTADOS: Los bajos niveles de tamizaje actuales (cobertura del tamizaje citológico de 10,0 %) redujeron en 11,9 % el riesgo de cáncer cervicouterino durante toda la vida en comparación con la ausencia de tamizaje. La adición de la vacunación de las niñas preadolescentes con la cobertura alcanzada en el programa piloto (82,0 %) produjo una reducción adicional de 46,1 % y costaría menos de US$ 500 por cada año de vida salvado a US$ 7 la dosis, o de US$ 1 300 a US$ 20 la dosis. Se calculó que el costo de las vacunaciones de un año era aproximadamente de US$ 5 millones a unos US$ 5 la dosis o de aproximadamente US$ 16 millones a unos US$ 20 la dosis, incluidos los costos programáticos. La mejora del tamizaje en las mujeres adultas combinada con la vacunación de las preadolescentes mostraba cocientes de rentabilidad incremental inferiores al producto interno bruto per cápita del Perú en el año 2005 (PIB US$ 2 852, en dólares del 2009), y se consideraría rentable. CONCLUSIONES: La vacunación de las preadolescentes contra el VPH, junto con la mejora del tamizaje mediante la prueba de ADN del VPH en las mujeres adultas, podría prevenir dos de cada tres muertes debidas a cáncer cervicouterino. Varias estrategias se considerarían rentables en relación con los recursos invertidos, a condición de que el precio de la vacuna sea bajo. Aunque los costos financieros implican inversiones inmediatas sustanciales, el valor elevado de los beneficios debe motivar la elaboración de mecanismos creativos para financiar y extender los programas de prestación de servicios.

Evaluación de la utilidad de un programa de cribado mamográfico en Bogotá, Colombia / Evaluating the usefulness of a breast screening program in Bogotá, Colombia

Objetivo Evaluar mediante un modelo de simulación la utilidad de un programa organizado de cribado mamográfico en Bogotá, Colombia. Material y Métodos Diseño análisis de costo-efectividad usando el modelo Markov. Se compara la realización de cribado mamográfico bienal en mujeres de 50 a 69 años con respecto al statu quo en el cual no existe este programa. Se evalúa sobrevida, costos e incrementos en la tasa de costo-efectividad. Resultados El modelo muestra una reducción de la tasa de mortalidad por cáncer de mama en el esquema de cribado mamográfico de ciclo bienal. Se observa que hay un incremento lineal de los años de vida acumulados desde el tercer ciclo con un ahorro acumulado de costos de tratamiento en las diferentes tasas de cribado generando ahorros al sistema de salud.La Razón de costo por año de vida ganado y Producto interno bruto se hace menor de 3 por encima del 50 % de cobertura (indicando que es una intervención costo-efectiva). El costo medio del programa experimenta una disminución porcentual del 40 % cuando se llega al ciclo 10. De allí la disminución de este costo es menor. Conclusiones Según el modelo desarrollado es costo-efectivo adelantar un programa de cribado mamográfico bienal con cobertura mayor al 50 %, obteniéndose reducción en la mortalidad que se hace más notoria desde el tercer ciclo del esquema evaluado, obteniendo un ahorro en los recursos queelsistema de salud destina al cáncer de mama.

Objective Using a simulation model for evaluating the usefulness of an organized breast cancer screening program in Bogotá, Colombia Material and methods The Markov model was used for designing a cost-effectiveness analysis; this was compared to a biennial breast cancer screening for women aged 50 to 69 years old. The disease's natural history, breast screening studies and publications concerning breast cancer were used as input for the model; the number of diagnosed cancer cases, stage distribution and mortality, survival, costs and increased effectiveness rate were also analyzed. Results The model showed that breast cancer mortality rate decreased in biennial breast cancer screening. Life-years-gained became increased from the third cycle onwards. The ratio between the cost of a life-year-gained and gross domestic product was lower than 3 when more than 50 % of the population were screened (meaning that such program would be cost-effective). The program's lowest average cost was achieved by increasing the number of screening cycles as far as the sixth cycle. Conclusions The simulation model for studying the impact of changing a breast cancer screening program's coverage for women aged 50 to 69 years led to ascertaining that introducing biennial frequency would be cost-effective when more than 50 % of the population were studied. A lower mortality rate would result, mainly from the third cycle onwards, thereby saving important health system resources in Bogotá, Colombia.

Estimativa do custo do tratamento do câncer de pele tipo não-melanoma no Estado de São Paulo - Brasil / An estimate of the cost of treating non-melanoma skin cancer in the state of São Paulo, Brazil

FUNDAMENTOS: O câncer de maior incidência no Brasil é o de pele não-melanoma, que afeta aproximadamente 0,06 por cento da população. Não existem políticas públicas para sua prevenção e o impacto econômico do seu diagnóstico não tem sido avaliado. OBJETIVOS: Estimar os custos do diagnóstico e tratamento do câncer de pele não-melanoma no Estado de São Paulo entre 2000 a 2007 e compará-los com os do melanoma cutâneo no mesmo período. MÉTODOS: Foi utilizado como modelo de procedimento o projeto diretriz Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology, (National Comprehensive Cancer Network), adequado aos procedimentos da Fundação SOBECCan - Hospital do Câncer de Ribeirão Preto - SP. Os custos estimados baseiam-se nos valores do tratamento médico pagos pelos setores público e privado em 2007. RESULTADOS: Os valores médios de custo individual do tratamento anual do câncer de pele não-melanoma são muito mais baixos do que os estimados para o tratamento do melanoma cutâneo. Entretanto, observados os gastos totais no tratamento do câncer de pele não-melanoma, percebe-se que os 42.184 casos deste câncer em São Paulo, no período estudado, fazem com que o custo total do seu tratamento seja 14 por cento superior ao dos 2.740 casos de melanoma cutâneo registrados no mesmo período para o SUS. Porém, para o sistema privado, o gasto total é, aproximadamente, 34 por cento menor para o tratamento do câncer de pele não-melanoma. CONCLUSÃO: O elevado número de casos de câncer de pele não-melanoma no Brasil - com 114 mil novos casos previstos para 2010, sendo 95 por cento diagnosticados em estágios precoces - representa um impacto financeiro ao sistema público e aos sistemas privados de saúde de cerca de R$ 37 milhões e R$ 26 milhões ao ano, respectivamente.

BACKGROUND: The most common form of cancer in Brazil is non-melanoma skin cancer, which affects approximately 0.06 percent of the population. There are no public policies for its prevention and the economic impact of its diagnosis has yet to be established. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the costs of the diagnosis and treatment of non-melanoma skin cancer in the state of São Paulo between 2000 and 2007 and to compare them with the costs associated with skin melanoma in the same period. METHODS: The Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (National Comprehensive Cancer Network) was used as a procedure model, adapted to the procedures at the SOBECCan Foundation at the Ribeirão Preto Cancer Hospital in São Paulo. The estimated costs were based on the costs of medical treatment in the public and private sectors in 2007. RESULTS: The mean annual costs of each individual treatment of non-melanoma skin cancer were much lower than those estimated for the treatment of skin melanoma. Nevertheless, when the total costs of the treatment of non-melanoma skin cancer were taken into consideration, it was found that the total cost of the 42,184 cases of this type of cancer in São Paulo within the study period was 14 percent higher than the costs of the 2,740 cases of skin melanoma registered in the same period within the Brazilian National Health Service (SUS). However, in the private sector, the total cost was approximately 34 percent less for the treatment of non-melanoma skin cancer compared to melanoma. CONCLUSION: The high number of cases of non-melanoma skin cancer in Brazil, with 114,000 new cases predicted for 2010, 95 percent of which are diagnosed at early stages, represents a financial burden to the public and private healthcare systems of around R$37 million and R$26 million annually, respectively.

Cost Effectiveness of Interventions to Promote Screening for Colorectal Cancer: A Randomized Trial / 예방의학회지

OBJECTIVES: Screening for colorectal cancer is considered cost effective, but is underutilized in the U.S. Information on the efficiency of "tailored interventions" to promote colorectal cancer screening in primary care settings is limited. The paper reports the results of a cost effectiveness analysis that compared a survey-only control group to a Centers for Disease Control (CDC) web-based intervention (screen for life) and to a tailored interactive computer-based intervention. METHODS: A randomized controlled trial of people 50 and over, was conducted to test the interventions. The sample was 1224 partcipants 50-70 years of age, recruited from Kelsey-Seybold Clinic, a large multi-specialty clinic in Houston, Texas. Screening status was obtained by medical chart review after a 12-month follow-up period. An "intention to treat" analysis and micro costing from the patient and provider perspectives were used to estimate the costs and effects. Analysis of statistical uncertainty was conducted using nonparametric bootstrapping. RESULTS: The estimated cost of implementing the web-based intervention was $40 per person and the cost of the tailored intervention was $45 per person. The additional cost per person screened for the web-based intervention compared to no intervention was $2602 and the tailored intervention was no more effective than the web-based strategy. CONCLUSIONS: The tailored intervention was less cost-effective than the web-based intervention for colorectal cancer screening promotion. The web-based intervention was less cost-effective than previous studies of in-reach colorectal cancer screening promotion. Researchers need to continue developing and evaluating the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of interventions to increase colorectal cancer screening.