Kimchi attenuates fatty streak formation in the aorta of low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout mice via inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is positively associated with atherosclerosis via elevating macrophage cell death and plaque formation, in which oxidative stress plays a pivotal role. Antioxidative, lipid-lowering, and anti-atherogenic effects of kimchi, a Korean fermented vegetable, have been established, wherein capsaicin, ascorbic acid, quercetin, 3-(4'-hydroxyl-3',5'-dimethoxyphenyl)propionic acid, and lactic acids were identified. In this study, mechanisms of action of kimchi methanol extracts (KME) on fatty streak formation via suppression of ER stress and apoptosis in aorta were examined in low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Mice fed a high cholesterol diet with an oral administration of KME (KME group, 200 mg·kg-bw⁻¹·day⁻¹) or distilled water (control group) for 8 weeks (n = 20 for group). Plasma lipid and oxidative stress levels were evaluated. Protein expression was measured by western blot assay. Fatty streak lesion size and the degree of apoptosis were examined in the aorta. RESULTS: Compared to the control group, in the KME group, plasma lipids levels were decreased and oxidative stress was alleviated (P < 0.05). Protein expression levels of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2-mediated antioxidants in aorta were increased whereas those for ER stress markers, glucose regulated protein 78, phospho-protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase, phospho-eukaryotic initiation factor 2 subunit α, X-box binding protein 1, and C/EBP homologous protein were decreased in the KME group (P < 0.05). Moreover, apoptosis was suppressed via downregulation of phospho-c-Jun N-terminal kinase, bcl-2-associated X protein, caspases-9, and -3 with a concomitant upregulation of anti-apoptotic protein, B-cell lymphoma 2 (P < 0.05). Fatty streak lesion size was reduced and the degree of apoptosis was less severe in the KME group (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, antioxidant activity of KME might prevent fatty streak formation through, in part, inhibition of ER stress and apoptosis in aortic sinus where macrophages are harbored.

Activation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Attenuates Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha-Induced Lipolysis via Protection of Perilipin in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes

BACKGROUND: Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) are known to stimulate and repress lipolysis in adipocytes, respectively; however, the mechanisms regulating these processes have not been completely elucidated. METHODS: The key factors and mechanism of action of TNF-alpha and AMPK in lipolysis were investigated by evaluating perilipin expression and activity of protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK)/eukaryotic initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2alpha) by Western blot and an immunofluorescence assay in 24-hour TNF-alpha-treated 3T3-L1 adipocytes with artificial manipulation of AMPK activation. RESULTS: Enhancement of AMPK activity by the addition of activator minoimidazole carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR) suppressed TNF-alpha-induced lipolysis, whereas the addition of compound C, an inhibitor of AMPK phosphorylation, enhanced lipolysis. Perilipin, a lipid droplet-associated protein, was decreased by TNF-alpha and recovered following treatment with AICAR, showing a correlation with the antilipolytic effect of AICAR. Significant activation of PERK/eIF2alpha, a component of the unfolded protein response signaling pathway, was observed in TNF-alpha or vesicle-treated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The antilipolytic effect and recovery of perilipin expression by AICAR in TNF-alpha-treated 3T3-L1 adipocytes were significantly diminished by treatment with 2-aminopurine, a specific inhibitor of eIF2alpha. CONCLUSION: These data indicated that AICAR-induced AMPK activation attenuates TNF-alpha-induced lipolysis via preservation of perilipin in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In addition, PERK/eIF2alpha activity is a novel mechanism of the anti-lipolytic effect of AICAR.