Optimización de recursos para determinar la carga viral de HIV-1 en un país con pocos recursos / Optimizing resources to reduce costs to determine HIV viral load in limited resources settings

Resumen Introducción. Las metas globales para controlar la epidemia de HIV contemplan que la carga viral sea indetectable en 90 % de las personas en tratamiento. El costo de la medición de la carga viral en lotes de muestras puede reducirse y, así, aumentar la cobertura cuando los recursos son limitados; sin embargo, su eficacia disminuye al aumentar la prevalencia del fracaso del tratamiento antirretroviral. Objetivo. Evaluar estrategias para disminuir la proporción de pacientes con fracaso del tratamiento antirretroviral en los lotes de muestras y, de esta manera, aumentar el ahorro en las pruebas de carga viral. Materiales y métodos. Las estrategias evaluadas fueron: a) la organización de los lotes de muestras según el esquema de tratamiento antirretroviral, y b) la exclusión de aquellos pacientes con antecedente reciente de fracaso del tratamiento antirretroviral, aquellos con menos de 12 meses de tratamiento antirretroviral y aquellos sin tratamiento antirretroviral previo. Los resultados de los lotes se compararon con los resultados individuales. Resultados. El valor diagnóstico negativo fue similar para los pacientes con esquema de primera línea (100,0 %; IC95% 99,5-100,0) o de segunda línea de tratamiento (99,4 %; IC95% 96,9-99,9). La incidencia del fracaso del tratamiento antirretroviral fue menor en los pacientes con tratamiento de primera línea (p<0,01), lo cual permitió un mayor ahorro en las pruebas de laboratorio en este grupo (74,0 %; IC95% 71,0-76,7) que en los pacientes con tratamiento de segunda línea (50,9 %; IC95% 44,4-57,3) (p<0,01). Conclusión. La selección de las muestras que se incluyeron en los lotes para determinar la carga viral del HIV según el tipo de esquema de tratamiento, permitió maximizar el porcentaje de ahorro en pruebas de laboratorio.

Abstract Introduction: HIV viral load testing is a key factor to evaluate the accomplishment of the UNAIDS target of 90% of viral suppression among people receiving antiretroviral therapy. Pooled samples are a potentially accurate and economic approach in resource-constrained settings, but efficiency can be negatively affected by high prevalence rates of virological failure. Objective: Strategies were assessed to increase the relative efficiency of pooled HIV viral load testing in resource-constrained settings. Materials and methods: We evaluated two strategies: a) plasma samples were not included in pools if patients had <12 months on antiretroviral therapy, patients had previous viral load >1,000 copies/ml, or were antiretroviral therapy naïve patients, and b) plasma pools were organized separately for first and second-line antiretroviral therapy regimens. Individual viral load tests were used to compare pooled results. Results: Negative predictive values were similar for patients on first (100.0%; 95% CI 99.5 to 100.0) and second-line antiretroviral therapy regimens (99.4%; 95% CI 96.9 to 99.9). However, the incidence of virological failure among individuals on first-line antiretroviral therapy was lower than second-line antiretroviral therapypatients (p <0.01), resulting in greater savings in laboratory tests in patients on first-line antiretroviral therapy (74.0%; 95% CI 71.0 to 76.7) compared with the group of patients on second-line antiretroviral therapy (50.9%; 95% CI 44.4 to 57.3) (p<0.01). Conclusion: Selecting the samples to be included in the pools and selecting the pools according to ART regimens are criteria that could lead to decreased spending on laboratory tests for HIV viral load determination in resource-constrained settings.

Strategies for price reduction of HIV medicines under a monopoly situation in Brazil / Estratégias de redução de preços de medicamentos para aids em situação de monopólio no Brasil

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze Government strategies for reducing prices of antiretroviral medicines for HIV in Brazil. METHODS Analysis of Ministry of Health purchases of antiretroviral medicines, from 2005 to 2013. Expenditures and costs of the treatment per year were analyzed and compared to international prices of atazanavir. Price reductions were estimated based on the terms of a voluntary license of patent rights and technology transfer in the Partnership for Productive Development Agreement for atazanavir. RESULTS Atazanavir, a patented medicine, represented a significant share of the expenditures on antiretrovirals purchased from the private sector. Prices in Brazil were higher than international references, and no evidence was found of a relationship between purchase volume and price paid by the Ministry of Health. Concerning the latest strategy to reduce prices, involving local production of the 200 mg capsule, the price reduction was greater than the estimated reduction. As for the 300 mg capsule, the amounts paid in the first two years after the Partnership for Productive Development Agreement were close to the estimated values. Prices in nominal values for both dosage forms remained virtually constant between 2011 (the signature of the Partnership for Productive Development Agreement), 2012 and 2013 (after the establishment of the Partnership). CONCLUSIONS Price reduction of medicines is complex in limited-competition environments. The use of a Partnership for Productive Development Agreement as a strategy to increase the capacity of local production and to reduce prices raises issues regarding its effectiveness in reducing prices and to overcome patent barriers. Investments in research and development that can stimulate technological accumulation should be considered by the Government to strengthen its bargaining power to negotiate medicines prices under a monopoly situation.

RESUMO OBJETIVO Analisar as estratégias governamentais para redução de preço de medicamentos antirretrovirais para aids no Brasil. MÉTODOS Realizada análise das compras de medicamentos antirretrovirais pelo Ministério da Saúde, de 2005 a 2013. Foram analisados o gasto e o custo do tratamento por ano e comparados com os preços internacionais para o atazanavir. Foram estimadas as reduções com base no contrato da Parceria para Desenvolvimento Produtivo para obtenção de licença voluntária de patente e transferência de tecnologia do atazanavir. RESULTADOS O atazanavir teve peso expressivo nos gastos com antirretrovirais adquiridos no setor privado. Os preços praticados no Brasil foram mais altos que aqueles de referência internacional e não houve evidências da relação entre volume de compra e preço pago pelo Ministério da Saúde, por ser medicamento patenteado. Em relação à estratégia mais recente para reduzir preços, envolvendo produção local da cápsula de 200 mg, as reduções foram menores do que as estimadas. Quanto à cápsula de 300 mg, os valores pagos nos dois primeiros anos após a Parceria para Desenvolvimento Produtivo foram próximos aos estimados. Os preços em valores nominais mantiveram-se praticamente constantes entre 2011 (assinatura da Parceria para Desenvolvimento Produtivo), 2012 e 2013 (após estabelecida a Parceria). CONCLUSÕES A redução do preço de medicamentos é complexa em ambiente de concorrência limitada. O uso da Parceria para Desenvolvimento Produtivo como método para aumentar a capacidade de produção local e reduzir preços levanta questões em relação à redução efetiva dos preços e ao enfrentamento da barreira patentária. Investimentos em pesquisa e desenvolvimento que possam estimular a acumulação tecnológica devem ser considerados pelo governo para fortalecer seu poder de barganha ao negociar preços de medicamentos em situação de monopólio.

Cuidado de enfermería en pacientes con vih: estigma y discriminación / Nursing care in patients with hiv: stigma and discrimination

La problemática de VIH es de carácter mundial y las cifras oficiales demuestran está disminuyendo, pero sigue cobrando vidas y las personas se siguen infectando por el VIH; por ello, el presente artículo trata acerca del estigma y la discriminación en personas con VIH y del cuidado de las y los profesionales de enfermería con el objetivo de reconocer la importancia del quehacer profesional en su cuidado; porque las personas que viven con VIH deben lidiar con un conjunto de estresores fisiológicos, socioculturales, económicos y psicológicos que en conjunto constituyen una amenaza potencial a su salud física y mental Carrobles et al, (2003); considerados dentro de ellos el estigma y la discriminación que están en todo el mundo a nivel social, en individuos, familias, comunidades, instituciones y los medios, y en las políticas y prácticas del gobierno. ONUSIDA (2008), USAID (2006); se realizó una exhaustiva revisión bibliográfica en diferentes sitios electrónicos y en documentos físicos relacionados al tema; encontrando que el cuidado surge cuando la existencia de un ser humano cobra valor para la enfermera y se prepara a participar en la asistencia a sus necesidades Do Prado y Schmidt, (2004). El cuidado de enfermería en la persona con VIH que sufre de estigma y discriminación debe ser en un marco de respeto y comprensión a la individualidad y procurar un clima armónico, de calidez y de dignidad así como buscando una aproximación positiva a la familia e intentando restablecer y mantener relaciones saludables con las personas con VIH.

The HIV problem is global in nature, and the offical figures show it is declining. However, it is still claiming lives and people continue to be infected with HIV; therefore, this article is about the stigma and discrimination against people with HIV and the care provided by nursing professionals in order to recognize the importance of professional work in the care of; because people living with HIV must deal with a set of physiological , socio-cultural, economic and psychological stressors that together constitute a potential threat to their physical and mental health. Carrobles et al, (2003); considered within them the stigma and discrimination are worldwide social level, individuals, families, communities, institutions and the media, and the policies and practices of government. UNAIDS (2008), USAID (2006); a comprehensive literature review was conducted on different web sites and physical documents related to the subject; finding care arises when the existence of a human being takes courage to nurse and prepared to participate in assisting your needs Do Prado and Schmidt (2004). Nursing care of the person with HIV who suffer from stigma and discrimination should be within a framework of respect and understanding for indiviuality and ensure a harmonious climate of warmth and dignity and looking for a positive approach to the family and trying restore and maintain healthy relationships with people with HIV.

The promise andl imitations of cash transfer programs for HIV prevention

As the search for more effective HIV prevention strategies continues; increased attention is being paid to the potential role of cash transfers in prevention programming in sub-Saharan Africa. To date; studies testing the impact of both conditional and unconditional cash transfers on HIV-related behaviours and outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa have been relatively small-scale and their potential feasibility; costs and benefits at scale; among other things; remain largely unexplored. This article examines elements of a successful cash transfer program from Latin America and discusses challenges inherent in scaling-up such programs. The authors attempt a cost simulation of a cash transfer program for HIV prevention in South Africa comparing its cost and relative effectiveness - in number of HIV infections averted - against other prevention interventions. If a cash transfer program were to be taken to scale; the intervention would not have a substantial effect on decreasing the force of the epidemic in middle- and low-income countries. The integration of cash transfer programs into other sectors and linking them to a broader objective such as girls' educational attainment may be one way of addressing doubts raised by the authors regarding their value for HIV prevention

Direct treatment costs of HIV/AIDS in Portugal / Custos diretos com tratamento do VIH/SIDA em Portugal / Costos originados por tratamiento del VIH/SIDA en Portugal

OBJECTIVE To analyze the direct medical costs of HIV/AIDS in Portugal from the perspective of the National Health Service. METHODS A retrospective analysis of medical records was conducted for 150 patients from five specialized centers in Portugal in 2008. Data on utilization of medical resources during 12 months and patients’ characteristics were collected. A unit cost was applied to each care component using official sources and accounting data from National Health Service hospitals. RESULTS The average cost of treatment was 14,277 €/patient/year. The main cost-driver was antiretroviral treatment (€ 9,598), followed by hospitalization costs (€ 1,323). Treatment costs increased with the severity of disease from € 11,901 (> 500 CD4 cells/µl) to € 23,351 (CD4 count ≤ 50 cells/ µl). Cost progression was mainly due to the increase in hospitalization costs, while antiretroviral treatment costs remained stable over disease stages. CONCLUSIONS The high burden related to antiretroviral treatment is counterbalanced by relatively low hospitalization costs, which, however, increase with severity of disease. The relatively modest progression of total costs highlights that alternative public health strategies that do not affect transmission of disease may only have a limited impact on expenditure, since treatment costs are largely dominated by constant antiretroviral treatment costs. .

OBJETIVO Analizar los costos médicos originados por tratamiento de VIH/SIDA, de acuerdo con la perspectiva del Servicio Nacional de Salud, en Portugal. MÉTODOS Se realizó análisis retrospectivo de registros médicos en muestra de 150 pacientes de cinco centros especializados, en 2008. Se obtuvieron datos de utilización de recursos médicos y de las características de los pacientes, en horizonte temporal de 12 meses. Se aplicó el costo unitario a cada componente de costo, usando fuentes oficiales y datos de contabilidad de los hospitales. RESULTADOS El costo promedio anual del tratamiento fue de 14,277€ por paciente. La parcela de costo más importante fue el relacionado con el tratamiento antiretrovial (9,598€), seguido por los costos de internación (1,323€). Los costos de tratamiento con severidad aumentaron de 11,901€ (> 500 CD4 células/µl) para 23,351€ (CD4 ≤ 50 células/µl). La progresión de los costos se debe mayormente al aumento de los costos de internación, dado que los costos por tratamiento antiretrovial se mantienen constantes a lo largo de las fases. CONCLUSIONES El elevado costo del tratamiento antiretrovial es compensado por el costo relativamente bajo de la internación, a pesar de que éste aumenta con la severidad. La baja progresión de los costos totales revela que estrategias de salud pública alternativas que no alteren la transmisión de la enfermedad tendrán sólo impacto limitado en los gastos, dado que los costos son mayormente influenciados por el tratamiento antiretrovial. .

OBJETIVO Analisar dos custos diretos médicos com VIH/SIDA, de acordo com a perspetiva do Serviço Nacional de Saúde, em Portugal. MÉTODOS Efetuou-se análise retrospectiva de registros médicos em amostra de 150 pacientes de cinco centros especializados em 2008. Foram obtidos dados de utilização de recursos médicos durante 12 meses e das características dos pacientes nesse período. Aplicou-se o custo unitário a cada componente de custo, usando fontes oficiais e dados contabilísticos dos hospitais. RESULTADOS O custo médio anual de tratamento foi de 14.277 euros por paciente. A parcela de custo mais importante foi o custo com o tratamento antirretroviral (9.598 euros), seguido dos custos de internação (1.323 euros). Os custos de tratamento com severidade aumentaram de 11.901 euros (> 500 CD4 células/µl) para 23.351 euros (CD4 ≤ 50 células/µl). A progressão dos custos deve-se principalmente ao aumento dos custos de internação, dado que os custos com tratamento antirretroviral se mantêm constantes ao longo dos estádios. CONCLUSÕES O custo elevado do tratamento antirretroviral é compensado com o custo relativamente baixo da internação, apesar deste aumentar com a severidade. A baixa progressão dos custos totais revela que estratégias de saúde pública alternativas que não alterem a transmissão da doença terão apenas impacto limitado nas despesas, dado que os custos são largamente influenciados pelo do tratamento antirretroviral. .

Análisis de costo-beneficio: prevención del VIH/sida en migrantes en Centroamérica / Cost-benefit analysis: HIV/AIDS prevention in migrants in Central America

OBJETIVO: Cuantificar los costos y beneficios de tres intervenciones de prevención del VIH en migrantes en Centroamérica: consejería y pruebas voluntarias, tratamiento de infecciones de transmisión sexual y distribución de condones. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Este estudio se basa en información proveniente de 11 estaciones de tránsito, ubicadas en las fronteras de cinco países que fue recolectada en el período de marzo de 2007 a marzo de 2009 e incluye datos de atención a pacientes en temas de VIH/sida. El número total de registros recibidos de personas con ITS y que recibieron consejería y pruebas rápidas voluntarias (CPV) es de 3 210 y 4 917 individuos, respectivamente. El análisis de costo-beneficio se realizó en tres etapas: a) identificación y cuantificación de costos; b) cuantificación de beneficios (ahorros potenciales en terapia antirretroviral por casos prevenidos de VIH) y c) estimación de la razón costo-beneficio. RESULTADOS: El modelo estima prevención de 9, 21 y 8 casos del VIH por CPV, TxITS y distribución de condones por cada 10 000 migrantes, respectivamente. En Panamá la distribución de condones y TxITS tienen un retorno de US$131/USD y US$69.8/USD, respectivamente. En El Salvador, los retornos son de US$2.0/USD y US$42.3/USD en CPV y distribución de condones, respectivamente. CONCLUSIÓN: Los ahorros potenciales por prevención varían entre países. Las estimaciones de costo-beneficio sugieren que los programas de prevención del VIH en países centroamericanos representarían ahorros monetarios a largo plazo.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the costs and benefits of three HIV prevention interventions in migrants in Central America: voluntary counseling and testing, treatment of sexually transmitted infections, and condom distribution. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The methods were: a) identification and quantification of costs; b) quantification of benefits, defined as the potential savings in antiretroviral treatment of HIV cases prevented; and c) estimation of the cost-benefit ratio. RESULTS: The model estimated that 9, 21 and 8 cases of HIV were prevented by voluntary counseling and testing, treatment for sexually transmitted infections and condom distribution per 10 000 migrants, respectively. In Panama, condom distribution and treatment for sexually transmitted infections had a return of US$131/USD and US$69.8/USD. Returns in El Salvador were US$2.0/USD and US$42.3/USD in voluntary counseling and testing and condom distribution, respectively. CONCLUSION: The potential savings on prevention have a large variation between countries. Nevertheless, the cost-benefit estimates suggest that the HIV prevention programs in Central America can potentially result in monetary savings in the long run.

Calculating the affordability of antiretrovirals in St Lucia / Cálculo de la asequibilidad de los antirretrovirales en Santa Lucia

The cost of antiretrovirals is borne by donors in many low- and middle-income countries, including St Lucia. Although donor involvement has facilitated access to antiretrovirals, donor engagement in HIV/AIDS has changed over the years. This paper assesses the affordability of antiretrovirals at the individual level if donors were no longer available to fund the cost of first and second-line antiretrovirals and a prospective third-line regimen. Various conceptions of affordability are reviewed using different assumptions of what is required to maintain a standard of living that would avoid individuals descending into poverty as a result of antiretroviral purchases. These concepts of affordability are operationalized using data from the Household Budgeting Survey conducted in St Lucia in 2005/2006. While there is a range of results for the affordability of first and second-line antiretrovirals depending on which standard of affordability is used, third-line antiretrovirals are unaffordable to more than 80% of the population across the four standards of affordability used - the national poverty line, 50% of median annual consumption, 10% of annual consumption and a proposed reasonable minimum standard.

El costo de los antirretrovirales descansa sobre los hombros de los donantes en muchos países de ingresos medios y bajos, incluyendo Santa Lucia. Aunque la involucración de los donantes ha facilitado el acceso a los antirretrovirales, el compromiso de aquellos con respecto al VIH/SIDA ha cambiado con los años. Este trabajo evalúa la asequibilidad de los antirretrovirales a nivel individual, en caso de que no hubiera ya más donantes disponibles para financiar el costo de los antirretrovirales de primera y segunda línea, y un régimen prospectivo de tercera línea. Se examinan varias concepciones en torno a su asequibilidad a partir de diferentes supuestos de lo que se requiere para mantener un determinado nivel de vida, sin que las personas caigan en la pobreza como resultado de la compra de antirretrovirales. Estos conceptos de asequibilidad se operacionalizan usando datos de la Encuesta de Presupuestos de Hogares realizada en Santa Lucía en 2005/2006. Si bien hay una gama de resultados para la asequibilidad de los antirretrovirales de primera y segunda línea, en dependencia de cual estándar de asequibilidad se utilice, los antirretrovirales de tercera línea son inasequibles para más del 80% de la población en los cuatro estándares de accesibilidad utilizados: la línea de pobreza nacional, el 50% del consumo anual promedio, el 10% del consumo anual, y un estándar mínimo razonable propuesto.

A comparative analysis of outpatient costs in HIV treatment programs / Análise comparativa dos custos ambulatoriais em programas de tratamento de pacientes HIV

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the costs of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) outpatient treatment for individuals with different CD4 cell counts in the Brazilian public health system, and to compare to costs in other national health systems. METHODS: A retrospective survey was conducted in five public outpatient clinics of the Brazilian national HIV program in the city of São Paulo. Data on healthcare services provided for a period of one year of HIV outpatient treatment were gathered from randomly selected medical records. Prices of inputs used were obtained through market research and public sector databases. Information on costs of HIV outpatient treatment in other national health systems were gathered from the literature. Annual costs of HIV outpatient treatment from each country were converted into 2010 U.S. dollars. RESULTS: Annual cost of HIV outpatient treatment for the Brazilian national public program was US$ 2,572.92 in 2006 in São Paulo, ranging from US$ 1,726.19 for patients with CD4 cell count > 500 to US$ 3,693.28 for patients with 51 < CD4 cell count < 200. Antiretrovirals (ARVs) represented approximately 62.0% of annual HIV outpatient costs. Comparing among different health systems during the same period, HIV outpatient treatment presented higher costs in countries where HIV treatment is provided by the private sector. CONCLUSION: The main cost drivers of HIV outpatient treatment in different health systems were: ARVs, other medications, health professional services, and diagnostic exams. Nevertheless, the magnitude of cost drivers varied among HIV outpatient treatment programs due to health system efficiency. The data presented may be a valuable tool for public policy evaluation of HIV treatment programs worldwide.

OBJETIVO: Analisar custos de tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes portadores do vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV) com diferentes níveis de CD4 no sistema público de saúde brasileiro e comparar aos custos de outros sistemas de saúde. MÉTODOS: Foi conduzida pesquisa retrospectiva em cinco ambulatórios especializados do programa DST/AIDS no município de São Paulo. Dados referentes à assistência ambulatorial para tratamento de pacientes HIV durante um ano foram obtidos em prontuários médicos selecionados aleatoriamente. Preços dos recursos utilizados foram obtidos via pesquisa de mercado e bancos de dados do setor público. Informações sobre custos do tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes HIV em outros sistemas de saúde foram obtidos na literatura. Os custos anuais de tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes HIV em cada país foram convertidos em dólares norte-americanos no ano base 2010. RESULTADOS: O custo anual de tratamento ambulatorial para pacientes HIV no programa público nacional foi US$ 2.572,92 em 2006 no município de São Paulo, variando entre US$ 1.726,19 para pacientes com CD4 > 500 e US$ 3.693,28 para pacientes com 51 < CD4 < 200. Medicamentos antirretrovirais (ARVs) representaram aproximadamente 62,0% dos custos de tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes HIV. Comparando-se custos entre diferentes sistemas de saúde no mesmo período, o tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes HIV apresentou custos superiores nos países onde a provisão do tratamento é realizada pelo setor privado. CONCLUSÃO: Os principais determinantes dos custos de tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes HIV são: medicamentos ARVs, outros medicamentos, profissionais de saúde e exames diagnósticos. No entanto, a magnitude de participação dos determinantes de custos nos programas de tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes HIV varia em decorrência da eficiência do sistema de saúde. Os dados apresentados constituem importante instrumento para avaliação de políticas públicas de saúde relacionadas ao tratamento de pacientes HIV mundialmente.

Effectiveness of antiretroviral treatment in patients from Pereira and Manizales / Efectividad del tratamiento antirretroviral en pacientes de Pereira y Manizales

Objective Evaluating the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy in a sample of Colombian patients diagnosed as having HIV/AIDS and being treated by the Colombian Health Social Security System (CHSSS) Methods A descriptive study was conducted among 134 HIV/AIDS patients of any age or gender who had received antiretroviral therapy in the cities of Pereira and Manizales between July 1st 2008 and June 30th 2009. The following factors were assessed from the clinical history of the patients seen in three health insurance companies: viral load, CD4 count, antiretroviral treatment regimens, prescribed daily doses of medications, length of disease evolution, duration of therapy, history of opportunistic diseases, and drug costs. Results There was male predominance (91 men cf 43 women), mean age beingf 39 years, and an average of 59 months since diagnosis. All treatment regimens were defined by each drug's defined daily dose (DDD). The therapy was effective in 74.5 percent of patients. Effectiveness was defined as being viral load < 400 copies/ml. About 79.1 percent of patients had had their viral load measured during the last 6 months. Non-adherence to treatment and a history of having acquired 2 other sexually- transmitted infections were associated with an increased risk of uncontrolled HIV infection. The average value of drugs per year per patient was $4,077.2 ± 3,043.8 U.S. dollars/year. Conclusions Non-adherence to treatment remains one of the most important issues regarding antiretroviral therapy effectiveness, so programmes intended to control HIV/AIDS must address this problem.

Objetivo Evaluar la efectividad del tratamiento antirretroviral en una muestra de pacientes con diagnóstico de VIH/SIDA en dos ciudades colombianas. Métodos Estudio descriptivo en 134 pacientes en tratamiento para VIH/SIDA de cualquier edad y género en Pereira y Manizales entre 1 de julio de 2008 y 30 de junio de 2009. Se evaluó: carga viral, conteo de linfocitos CD4, esquemas antirretrovirales, dosis diaria prescrita, tiempo evolución de enfermedad, duración de terapia, antecedentes de enfermedades oportunistas, costos de medicamentos. Resultados Predominio masculino (91 hombres vs 43 mujeres), promedio de edad: 39 años y 59 meses de evolución de la enfermedad. Todos recibían esquemas a Dosis Diarias Definidas recomendadas. La terapia era efectiva en 73,6 por ciento de los pacientes (carga viral <400 copias/ml). Se pudo establecer que la falta de adherencia al tratamiento y el antecedente de haber tenido otras 2 infecciones de transmisión sexual se asociaban con mayor riesgo de no controlar la infección por VIH. El valor promedio de los medicamentos por año por paciente fue de US$ 4 077.2 ± 3 043.8 dólares. Conclusiones La falta de adherencia al tratamiento sigue siendo uno de los problemas más importantes para garantizar efectividad, por lo cual los programas de control del VIH/SIDA deben asegurarla.

Variability in HIV-1 partial genomic sequences in Costa Rican patients: analysis with different bioinformatics tools / Variabilidad de secuencias genómicas parciales del VIH-1 en pacientes costarricenses: análisis con diferentes herramientas bioinformáticas

OBJECTIVE: To estimate subtype and genomic variability in the HIV pol gene of Costa Rican patients by using different bioinformatics tools and to use this information to establish new policies to better manage these patients. METHODS: A total of 113 pol sequences available from Costa Rican patients under highly active antiretroviral therapy were analyzed by using the Genotyping, REGA, Stanford, and MEGA programs. The pol sequences came from 77 virologic failures (VF) and 36 basal samples (BS). Of the 77 VF, 22 also were sequenced in the env region. RESULTS: No major differences were found among the variables studied. However, there was a tendency for more variability in VF patients with a high baseline viral load. In the pol gene, 75 percent-83 percent of BS and 66 percent-75 percent of VF samples were pure B subtype by Genotyping and REGA, respectively. The other samples presented variations related mainly to circulating recombinant form CRF12 by genotyping or to CRF17 or -29 by phylogenetic analysis or a new possible BD recombinant with all programs. In the Stanford program, all variable samples showed a subtype B with high polymorphism. The variability in the env sequences was lower than that in the pol region. CONCLUSION: The B subtype is predominant in Costa Rican HIV-positive patients. There is high variability within sequences with potential recombination between B and F or D subtypes. The BD recombinant has not been previously reported. This high variability is likely the result of possible recombinant events, nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy, sexual intercourse without protection, and many sexual partners. Similar studies should be done in other countries in the Region, in particular in those places with extensive immigration, in order to decrease the possibility of virus variability as well as the cost of antiretroviral therapy.

OBJETIVOS: Determinar el subtipo y la variabilidad genómica del gen pol del VIH de pacientes costarricenses mediante diferentes herramientas bioinformáticas y el uso de esta información para establecer nuevas políticas para mejorar el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de estos pacientes. MÉTODOS: Se analizaron 113 secuencias del gen pol de pacientes costarricenses bajo tratamiento antirretrovírico de gran actividad mediante cuatro programas: Genotyping, REGA, Stanford y MEGA. Las secuencias pol analizadas provenían de 77 casos considerados fracasos virológicos (FV) y 36 muestras iniciales (MI). También se secuenció la región env de 22 de los 77 FV. RESULTADOS: No se encontraron diferencias importantes entre las variables estudiadas. No obstante, se observó una tendencia a una mayor variabilidad en los pacientes FV que tenían una elevada carga viral inicial. Con respecto al gen pol, 77-83 por ciento de las MI y 66-75 por ciento de las muestras de los FV eran del subtipo B puro según Genotyping y REGA, respectivamente. Las otras muestras presentaron variaciones relacionadas principalmente con la forma recombinante en circulación CRF-12 según Genotyping, con la CRF-17 o la CRF-29 según el análisis filogenético, o una nueva posible forma recombinante BD según todos los programas. Con el programa Stanford, todas las muestras variables reflejaron un subtipo B con elevado polimorfismo. La variabilidad de la secuencia env fue menor que la de la región pol. CONCLUSIONES: El subtipo B fue el predominante en los pacientes positivos al VIH en Costa Rica. Existe una alta variabilidad en las secuencias con una posible recombinación entre los subtipos B, y F o D. La forma recombinante BD no se había notificado antes. Esta elevada variabilidad parece ser el resultado de posibles eventos de recombinación, la falta de adhesión al tratamiento antirretrovírico, las relaciones sexuales sin protección y numerosas parejas sexuales. Se deben emprender estudios similares en otros países de la Región, en particular en los lugares con mucha inmigración, para reducir tanto la posibilidad de que el virus varíe como el costo del tratamiento antirretrovírico.

Comparación de tres estrategias de tamizaje para la prevención de la infección perinatal por VIH en Colombia: análisis de decisiones / A comparison of three screening strategies for prevention of perinatal HIV infection in Colombia: a decision analysis model

OBJETIVO: Comparar mediante un modelo de análisis de decisiones tres estrategias de tamizaje de la infección por el VIH en mujeres embarazadas según su relación costo-efectividad y proponer la más apropiada para el sistema de salud colombiano. MÉTODOS: Estudio económico basado en el análisis mediante árboles de decisión según tres estrategias de tamizaje de la infección por el VIH en mujeres embarazadas: la voluntaria, la universal y la opcional. Se consideró a todas las mujeres colombianas embarazadas sin diagnóstico de infección por el VIH que se presentaban para el parto. Se emplearon los costos médicos directos desde la realización de la prueba hasta un año después del parto, según el Sistema General de Seguridad Social en Salud. Se compararon las razones costo-efectividad y el ahorro de cada estrategia analizada. RESULTADOS: Por cada 10 000 mujeres, la estrategia universal permitió detectar 5 casos más que la estrategia voluntaria y 7 casos más que la opcional. La estrategia universal generó costos aproximados de US$ 17,00 por cada recién nacido positivo, es decir, menos de la mitad que lo calculado para la estrategia voluntaria (US$ 38,00) y menor que para la opcional (US$ 24,00). Según el análisis bifactorial, la estrategia de tamizaje universal fue menos costosa que la voluntaria y más efectiva que las otras dos estrategias, independientemente de la prevalencia, la tasa de positivos falsos del sistema de diagnóstico empleado y la tasa de aceptación materna para realizarse la prueba de tamizaje. CONCLUSIONES: La estrategia de tamizaje voluntaria, que se utiliza actualmente en Colombia, es más costosa que la universal a mediano y largo plazos y tiene menor efectividad y capacidad de prevención. Se recomienda a las autoridades nacionales de salud realizar el tamizaje de la infección por el VIH a todas las embarazadas colombianas con pruebas de tercera generación.

OBJECTIVES: To apply decision analysis to compare the cost-effectiveness of three strategies for HIV screening of pregnant women and to recommend the one most appropriate for the health care system of Colombia. METHODS: An economic study applying decision analysis to three types of HIV screening of expectant women: voluntary, universal, and optional. All the women in Colombia with unknown HIV status who were admitted for child birth were included. The study included all the direct medical costs incurred from the time of testing through the first year following delivery, according to the General System for Healthcare Social Security. Cost-effectiveness ratio and the savings of each of the strategies were compared. RESULTS: For every 10 000 women, the universal strategy detected five cases more than the voluntary strategy and seven cases more than the optional. The universal strategy carried a cost of approximately US$ 17 for each HIV-positive newborn; that is, less than half of that of the voluntary strategy (US$ 38) and less than the optional (US$ 24). According to the bifactorial analysis, the universal screening strategy was less costly than the voluntary and more effective than both of the others, regardless of prevalence, the false-positive rate of each method, and the rate of maternal compliance with screening. CONCLUSIONS: The screening strategy currently in use in Colombia is more costly (in both the medium- and long-term), less effective, and less capable of prevention, than the universal screening strategy. The recommendation to the national health authorities of Colombia is to begin screening all pregnant women for HIV infection using third-generation testing.

Costing of scaling up HIV/AIDS treatment in Mexico / Costos del tratamiento de VIH/SIDA en México

OBJECTIVE: To determine the net effect of introducing highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) in Mexico on total annual per-patient costs for HIV/AIDS care, taking into account potential savings from treatment of opportunistic infections and hospitalizations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A multi-center, retrospective patient chart review and collection of unit cost data were performed to describe the utilization of services and estimate costs of care for 1003 adult HIV+ patients in the public sector. RESULTS: HAART is not cost-saving and the average annual cost per patient increases after initiation of HAART due to antiretrovirals, accounting for 90 percent of total costs. Hospitalizations do decrease post-HAART, but not enough to offset the increased cost. CONCLUSIONS: Scaling up access to HAART is feasible in middle income settings. Since antiretrovirals are so costly, optimizing efficiency in procurement and prescribing is paramount. The observed adherence was low, suggesting that a proportion of these high drug costs translated into limited health benefits.

OBJETIVO: Determinar el efecto neto de la introducción de la terapia antirretroviral altamente activa (TARAA) en México sobre los costos anuales totales por paciente en el tratamiento de VIH/SIDA, tomando en cuenta el posible ahorro en el tratamiento de infecciones oportunistas y hospitalización. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se hizo un estudio retrospectivo, multicéntrico, mediante la revisión de los expedientes de los pacientes y la recolección de datos de costos unitarios para describir la utilización de los servicios y calcular los costos de la atención de 1 003 pacientes adultos VIH positivos en el sector público. RESULTADOS: La TARAA no ahorra costos y el costo promedio anual por paciente aumenta después de su inicio debido a los antirretrovirales, que representan 90 por ciento del costo total. Las hospitalizaciones disminuyen después de iniciada la TARAA, pero no lo suficiente como para compensar el aumento en costos. CONCLUSIONES: Incrementar el acceso a la TARAA es factible en países con ingresos medios. Debido al alto costo de los antirretrovirales resulta esencial que se optimice la eficiencia en la compra y prescripción. El apego al tratamiento observado fue bajo, lo que sugiere que una proporción de estos altos costos en medicamentos no se traducen en beneficios a la salud significativos.

Financial burden of health services for people with HIV/AIDS in India.

In resource-limited settings, illness can impose a major financial burden on patients and their families. With the advent and increasing accessibility of antiretroviral therapy, HIV/AIDS has now become a fundamentally chronic treatable disease with far reaching economic and social consequences, and hence it is crucial to also examine the long-term financial impact of HIV healthcare. Beyond the direct costs of medications, monitoring, and medical care, additional costs include the long-term lost earnings of HIV-infected individuals as well as of their household members who also provide care. A clearer understanding of the financial burden of healthcare for HIV-infected Indians can allow policy makers and planners to better allocate limited resources. This article reviews the financial consequences of HIV care and treatment on individuals and their households by examining current treatment options, HIV monitoring, the clinical course of HIV disease, and the roles of the private and public sector in providing HIV care in India. Future studies should more thoroughly examine the financial impact of HIV-related costs incurred by households over time and examine household responses to these costs.

Descentralização, AIDS e redução de danos: a implementação de políticas públicas no Rio de Janeiro, Brasil / Decentralization, AIDS, and harm reduction: the implementation of public policies in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

O artigo avalia como a descentralização dos recursos e ações do Programa Nacional de DST e AIDS influenciou as transferências de recursos para os programas de prevenção ao HIV/AIDS entre usuários de drogas injetáveis no Rio de Janeiro, Brasil (1999-2006). Foram avaliados os efeitos da política de descentralização sobre as transferências de recursos para os Programas de Redução de Danos (PRD) no Rio de Janeiro. A descentralização das transferências para os PRD no Rio de Janeiro se efetivou em 2006, com a virtual supressão do financiamento federal direto, obrigando estes programas a buscarem fontes alternativas de financiamento. Constata-se uma fragilidade dos PRD no Estado, agravada pela redução recente do volume de recursos. Dos 22 programas, existentes em 2002, o Estado passou a contar, em 2006, com apenas dois programas, financiados pelo Estado e por um município. A descontinuidade dessas ações pode vir a favorecer a reemergência da epidemia de AIDS nesta população, o que reclama um processo de descentralização mais gradual e melhor pactuado dessas iniciativas.

This paper assesses how decentralization of resources and initiatives by the Brazilian National SDT/AIDS Program has impacted the transfer of funds for programs to prevent HIV/AIDS among injecting drug users in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1999-2006). The effects of the decentralization policy on Rio de Janeiro's Syringe Exchange Programs (SEPs) are assessed in detail. Decentralization effectively took place in Rio de Janeiro in 2006, with the virtual elimination of any direct transfer from the Federal government. The elimination of direct transfers forced SEPs to seek alternative funding sources. The structure of local SEPs appears to be weak and has been further undermined by current funding constraints. Of 22 SEPs operating in 2002, only two are still operational in 2006, basically funded by the State Health Secretariat and one municipal government. The current discontinuity of SEP operations may favor the resurgence of AIDS in the IDU population. A more uniform, regulated decentralization process is thus needed.

Costs of care provided in a university hospital for children exposed to or infected with the HIV/AIDS

The objective of this study was to estimate and analyze the costs of treating children with HIV/AIDS at a university hospital in São Paulo, Brazil. The study collected and analyzed data from 291 medical records of children treated at the hospital as of March 2002. The costs of treatment were estimated for each category of patient (exposed and infected) and severity, based on the quantity of inputs and procedures used in treating each child, based on the cost accounting system used at the hospital. The total cost of treatment for children exposed to the HIV was R$ 956.41 and for those infected with HIV R$ 8,092.71 per year. The mean cost of ambulatory care was R$ 6,047.28 for children with severe conditions, R$ 3,714.45 for those with light/moderate conditions, and R$ 948.63 for the exposed. Hospitalized children had annual costs of R$ 19,353.34, R$ 18,823.16, and R$ 871.03, respectively. The medication was a major factor in the cost of treatment. Our estimates are comparable to the findings from other studies, but lower than corresponding findings from the international literature.

O objetivo deste estudo foi estimar e analisar os custos de tratamento da criança com HIV/AIDS em um hospital universitário de São Paulo, Brasil. Foram analisados 291 prontuários de crianças expostas ou infectadas acompanhadas no Instituto da Criança, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, em março de 2002. O custo foi estimado por categoria de paciente (exposta e infectada) e nível de gravidade (graves e leves/moderados), com base na quantidade de procedimentos e insumos utilizados no tratamento, e valorizado monetariamente por meio do sistema de apuração de custos existente no Instituto da Criança. O custo total estimado de tratamento da criança exposta ao HIV foi de R$ 956,41 e da criança infectada de R$ 8.092,71 por ano. O custo do tratamento ambulatorial foi de R$ 6.047,28, R$ 3.714,45 e R$ 948,63, respectivamente para os pacientes infectados graves, leves/moderados e para as crianças expostas, e o custo médio de internação foi de R$ 19.353,34, R$ 18.823,16 e R$ 871,03, respectivamente. O custo foi fortemente influenciado pelo consumo de medicamentos e comparável aos obtidos pelos demais estudos publicados, embora inferior ao estimado em estudos internacionais.

El gasto en la atención y la prevención del VIH/SIDA en México: tendencias y estimaciones 1997-2002 / HIV/AIDS care and prevention expenditures in Mexico: trends and estimations 1997-2002

OBJETIVO: Presentar un análisis de la tendencia seguida por el gasto ejercido en el combate de la epidemia de VIH/SIDA en México durante el periodo 1997-2002, contrastando el gasto y la distribución actual con las proyecciones internacionales y la situación imperante en otros países de la región. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: A partir de 1997, y durante tres bienios consecutivos, se ha desarrollado el análisis contable, sistematizado y exhaustivo de los flujos de financiamiento y gasto orientados al suministro de bienes y servicios relacionados con la atención y la prevención del VIH/SIDA, ejercicio denominado Cuentas Nacionales de SIDA. RESULTADOS: Se observa un incremento real y sostenido en el gasto total destinado al combate de la epidemia, estimado en 143 por ciento y ejercido en diferentes rubros, pero particularmente en el gasto en medicamentos antirretrovirales. No obstante, comparado con otros países de la región, el gasto mexicano en VIH/SIDA tiene un menor sesgo en cuanto a la asignación entre prevención y tratamiento. DISCUSION: El gobierno mexicano se ha comprometido a garantizar el acceso universal al tratamiento antirretroviral para los pacientes con VIH/SIDA que lo necesiten y, al mismo tiempo, a mantener e incluso aumentar los esfuerzos en prevención. Estas actividades demandan incrementos en los recursos destinados para combatir la epidemia, por lo que es importante dar seguimiento a la eficiencia con que se estén utilizando los mismos, de forma que se pueda mejorar su asignación y focalización.

HIV/AIDS epidemic in India: an economic perspective.

Whilst the international community's focus has been on the region most devastated by HIV/ AIDS, namely sub-Saharan Africa, India now appears on the brink of a significant AIDS epidemic. In thinking about the implications of HIV/AIDS, considerable attention was initially drawn to its clinical aspects. More recently, other dimensions of HIV, including economic, have been explored. The primary objective of this review is to elaborate on the major elements of the national and international economic research to data on HIV/AIDS, and to infer lessons from it, for India. It also examines the evidence on the aggregate and household-level economic impacts of HIV, the economic roots that drive its transmission and the methods economists use to assess the efficacy of alternative interventions to address HIV and AIDS. Available evidence suggests that whereas aggregate impacts may be limited, the adverse household-level economic implications of AIDS may be serious; public resources that are available for health are also likely to be put under strain. Paucity of economic research on HIV and AIDS relating to India is highlighted.