A SERM increasing the expression of the osteoblastogenesis and mineralization-related proteins and improving quality of bone tissue in an experimental model of osteoporosis

Abstract Raloxifene is an antiresorptive drug, selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) used in the treatment of osteoporosis. Objective To evaluate proteins related to bone repair at the peri-implant bone in a rat model of osteoporosis treated with raloxifene. Material and Methods 72 rats were divided into three groups: SHAM (healthy animals), OVX (ovariectomized animals), and RLX (ovariectomized animals treated with raloxifene). Raloxifene was administered by gavage (1 mg/kg/day). Tibial implantation was performed 30 days after ovariectomy, and animals were euthanized at 14, 42, and 60 days postoperatively. Samples were collected and analyzed by immunohistochemical reactions, molecular analysis, and microtomographic parameters. Results RLX showed intense staining of all investigated proteins at both time points except for RUNX2. These results were similar to SHAM and opposite to OVX, showing mild staining. The PCR gene expression of OC and ALP values for RLX (P<0.05) followed by SHAM and OVX groups. For BSP data, the highest expression was observed in the RLX groups and the lowest expression was observed in the OVX groups (P<0.05). For RUNX2 data, RLX and SHAM groups showed greater values compared to OVX (P<0.05). At 60 days postoperatively, microtomography parameters, related to closed porosity, showed higher values for (Po.N), (Po.V), and (Po) in RLX and SHAM groups, whereas OVX groups showed lower results (P<0.05); (BV) values (P=0.009); regarding total porosity (Po.tot), RLX group had statistically significant lower values than OVX and SHAM groups (P=0.009). Regarding the open porosity (Po.V and Po), the SHAM group presented the highest values, followed by OVX and RLX groups (P<0.05). The Structural Model Index (SMI), RLX group showed a value closer to zero than SHAM group (P<0.05). Conclusions Raloxifene had a positive effect on the expression of osteoblastogenesis/mineralization-related proteins and on micro-CT parameters related to peri-implant bone healing.

Agonistic activity of tamoxifen, a selective estrogen-receptor modulator (SERM), on arthritic ovariectomized mice

Arthritis is positively associated with the decline of sex hormones, especially estrogen. Tamoxifen (TMX) is a selective estrogen receptor modulator, possessing agonist or antagonistic activity in different tissues. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of TMX on the zymosan-induced arthritis model. Female Swiss normal and ovariectomized (OVX) mice were divided into groups and treated for five days with TMX (0.3, 0.9 or 2.7 mg/kg) or 17-β-estradiol (E2, 50 µg/kg). On the fifth day, arthritis was induced and 4 h later, leukocyte migration into joint cavities was evaluated. The neutrophil migration in OVX animals, but not in normal mice, treated with TMX (all tested doses) was significantly decreased compared with mice that received the vehicle (P≤0.05). Similarly, this effect was also demonstrated in the E2-treated group. Therefore, the present study demonstrates that TMX presented agonist effects in inhibiting neutrophil migration and preventing arthritis progression in OVX mice.

Analysis of the Ki-67 index in the vaginal epithelium of castrated rats treated with tamoxifen

OBJECTIVES: Vaginal atrophy and breast cancer are common conditions in postmenopausal women and tamoxifen is the standard endocrine treatment for hormone-sensitive tumors. The present study aimed to assess the effect of tamoxifen on Ki-67 protein expression in the vaginal epithelium of castrated rats. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Forty Wistar-Hannover adult, virgin, castrated rats were randomly divided into two groups, group I (control, n=20) and group II (tamoxifen, n=20), receiving 0.5 ml of propylene glycol and 250 µg of tamoxifen diluted in 0.5 ml of propylene glycol, respectively, daily by gavage for 30 days. On the 31st day, the rats were euthanized and their vaginas were removed and fixed in 10% buffered formalin for the immunohistochemical study of Ki-67 protein expression. Data were analyzed by the Levene and Student’s t tests (p<0.05). RESULTS: The mean index of Ki-67 expression in the rat vagina of groups I and II was 4.04±0.96 and 26.86±2.19, respectively (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: According to the results of the present study, tamoxifen, at the dose and treatment length used, induced a significant increase in the cell proliferation of the vaginal mucosa in castrated rats, as evaluated by Ki-67 protein expression.

Using agents that suppress bone remodeling to treat or prevent joint disease: quo vadis?

Treatment of osteoarthritis (OA) with antiremodeling agents has had a mixed record of results. It is likely that remodeling suppression is only effective when used in the early phases of OA, before significant progression. Animal and human studies largely bear this out. Treatment of young mice with a RANKL inhibitor suppresses bone resorption and prevents OA progression. Likewise, bisphosphonate treatments in rodents and rabbits with induced injury or inflammatory arthritis, reduced cartilage degeneration when administered preemptively, but later administration did not. The increased prevalence of OA in women after the menopause, and presence of estrogen receptors in joint tissues, suggests that treatment with estrogens or Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators may be effective. However, in clinical trials of knee and hip, results show decreased or increased risk for OA, or no effect. Raloxifene had positive effects in animal models, but no effect in human studies. More recent potential treatments such as strontium ranelate or cathepsin-K inhibitors may be effective, but may work directly on the cartilage rather than through their well-known effects on bone. The conclusion from these studies is that anti-remodeling agents must be administered pre-emptively or in the very early stages of disease to be effective. This means that better imaging techniques or identification of early structural changes in bone that occur before progressive cartilage destruction must be developed. (AU)

Effect of tamoxifen on the coronary vascular reactivity of spontaneously hypertensive female rats

Tamoxifen has been associated with a reduction in the incidence of myocardial infarction. However, the effects of tamoxifen on coronary reactivity have not been fully elucidated. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of chronic treatment with tamoxifen on coronary vascular reactivity in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Female SHR were divided into four groups (N = 7 each): sham-operated (SHAM), sham-operated and treated with tamoxifen (10 mg/kg) by gavage for 90 days (TAMOX), ovariectomized (OVX), and ovariectomized and treated with tamoxifen (OVX+TAMOX). Mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), coronary perfusion pressure (CPP), and coronary vascular reactivity were measured. MAP and HR were reduced (9.42 and 11.67 percent, respectively) in the OVX+TAMOX group compared to the OVX group (P < 0.01). The coronary vascular reactivity of the OVX+TAMOX group presented smaller vasoconstrictor responses to acetylcholine (2-64 µg) when compared to the OVX group (P < 0.01) and this response was similar to that of the SHAM group. The adenosine-induced vasodilator response was greater in the TAMOX group compared to the SHAM and OVX groups (P < 0.05). Baseline CPP was higher in OVX+TAMOX and TAMOX groups (136 ± 3.6 and 130 ± 1.5 mmHg) than in OVX and SHAM groups (96 ± 2 and 119 ± 2.3 mmHg; P < 0.01). Tamoxifen, when combined with OVX, attenuated the vasoconstriction induced by acetylcholine and increased the adenosine-induced vasodilatory response, as well as reducing the MAP, suggesting beneficial effects of tamoxifen therapy on coronary vascular reactivity after menopause.

Effect of centchroman on cellular and humoral immunity.

Centchroman (Ormeloxifene) is a nonsteroidal selective estrogen receptor modulator that is used as once a week oral contraceptive agent. The effect of centchroman on the immune system was evaluated by using different experimental models such as carbon clearance test, cyclophosphamide induced neutropenia, neutrophil adhesion test, effect on serum immunoglobulins, mice lethality test and indirect haemagglutination test. The first three models namely carbon clearance test, cyclophosphamide induced neutropenia and neutrophil adhesion test were used to study cell mediated immunity while the latter three models were used to see the effect on humoral immunity. Centchroman was administered orally at a dose of 5 mg/kg and levamisole (2.5 mg/kg/ p.o) was used as standard drug. Centchroman significantly increased the levels of serum immunoglobulins and also prevented the mortality induced by bovine Pasteurella multocida in mice. It also increased significantly the circulating antibody litre in indirect haemagglunation test. However, it did not show any significant effect on phagocytic index in carbon clearance assay and nor did influence the adhesion of neutrophils in the neutrophil adhesion test. Centchroman was also not effective in preventing the cyclophosphamde induced neutropenia. Hence, it was concluded that centchroman increases humoral immunity with no significant effect on cell mediated immunity.

Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMS) / Moduladores seletivos do receptor estrogênico (SERMs)

Hormone receptors and, specifically, estrogen receptors were described about four decades ago. For estrogens, there are two receptors, estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) and estrogen receptor beta (ERbeta). The two receptors are coded by different genes and their tissue expression varies across organs. ERalpha is predominantly expressed in reproductive tissues (uterus, breast, ovaries) liver and central nervous system, whereas ERbeta is expressed in other tissues such as bone, endothelium, lungs, urogenital tract, ovaries, central nervous system and prostate. More than seventy molecules that belong to the SERMS class have been described. There are 5 chemical groups: triphenylethylenes, benzotiophenes, tetrahydronaphtylenes, indoles and benzopyrans. All of these non-hormonal compounds are capable of activating the ER, reduce bone turnover rate and, as an antiresorptive, clearly improve bone density. Estrogens reduce bone turnover rate and, as an antiresorptive, clearly improve bone density. They are also beneficial for the relief of menopausal symptoms. An ongoing debate that extends over the decades, relates to to overall benefit/risk profile of estrogen or estrogen-progestin therapy since these therapies can increase the risk of serious health disorders, such as breast cancer. SERMs have increased our understanding of hormone-receptor regulatory mechanisms. Their development has permitted a targeted efficacy profile avoiding some of the side effects of the hormone therapy. Their clinical utility relies today mostly on the effects on breast cancer and bone.

Os receptores hormonais e especificamente os receptores estrogênicos, foram descritos há cerca de 40 anos. Para os estrógenos, existem dois tipos: o alfa (ERalfa) e os beta (ERbeta), os quais são codificados por diferentes genes e sua expressão tissular varia de tecido para tecido. O ERalfa se expressa predominantemente no aparelho reprodutivo (útero, mamas, ovários), fígado e sistema nervoso central (SNC). O ERbeta se expressa em outros tecidos como osso, endotélio, pulmões, urogenital, além dos ovários, SNC e próstata. Mais de setenta moléculas pertencentes ao grupo dos SERMs têm sido descritas, em 5 grupos químicos: trifeniletilenos, benzotiofenos, tetrahidronaftilenos, indols e benzopiranos. Todos estes compostos não hormonais são capazes de ativar o ER, reduzindo a remodelação óssea e melhorando a densidade mineral óssea. Os estrógenos reduzem a remodelação óssea e aumentam a densidade mineral óssea, como também melhoram os sintomas da menopausa. Um debate permanente existe a respeito da relação risco/benefício da terapia estrógeno-progestínica, em virtude do aumento do risco de problemas de saúde mais sérios como câncer de mama. Os SERMs aprimoraram o conhecimento sobre os mecanismos de regulação hormônio-receptor, e o seu desenvolvimento permitiu uma eficiente modalidade de ação terapêutica hormonal, evitando-se alguns dos efeitois adversos da terapia hormonal per si.

Moduladores seletivos do receptor estrogênico e redução do risco de câncer de mama: tamoxifeno e raloxifeno / Selective estrogen receptor modulators and breast cancer risk reduction: tamoxifen and raloxifene

Os moduladores seletivos dos receptores estrogênicos(Serms: selective estrogen receptor modulators) são medicamentos que se ligam aos receptores de estrógeno e atuam como agonistas em determinados tecidos(p. exemplo tecido ósseo) e como antagonistas do estrógeno em outros(útero e mamas). Pelo fato de atuarem como antagonistas estrogênicos na mama, os SERMs têm se mostrado eficazes na redução do risco de câncer de mama positivo para receptores de estrógeno. O uso do tamoxifeno na prevenção do câncer de mama foi avaliado em quatro principais estudos clínicos e demonstrou-se que o tamoxifeno, usado por cinco anos, reduz a incidência de câncer de mama positivo para receptor de estrógeno de forma estatisticamente significante em mulheres com alto risco. O aumento do risco de câncer de endométrio após cinco anos de uso da medicação torna importante a seleção de pacientes onde os benefícios sejam claramente maiores que os eventuais riscos decorrentes da terapia. O cloridrato de raloxifeno é um SERM de segunda geração que se liga com alta afinidade aos receptores estrogênicos e apresenta intensa atividade antiestrogênica no útero e mamas e atividade estogênica no tecido ósseo. No principal estudo realizado com raloxifeno, o More, observou-se redução de risco de 76 por cento, estatiscamente significante, de casos de câncer de mama em mulheres na pós-menopausa com osteoporose, após três anos. Estes resultados confirmaram-se também após quatro anos. Os dados de redução de risco de câncer de mama com raloxifeno, em mulheres na pós-menopausa, abrem uma nova perspectiva à redução do risco de câncer de mama

Cross-contamination with tamoxifen induces transgene expression in non-exposed inducible transgenic mice

Inducible transgenic mouse models that impose a constraint on both temporal and spatial expression of a given transgene are invaluable. These animals facilitate experiments that can address the role of a specific cell or group of cells within an animal or in a particular window of time. A common approach to achieve inducibility involves the site-specific recombinase ‘Cre’, which is linked to a modified version of one of various steroid hormone-binding domains. Thus, the expression of Cre is regulated such that a functional nuclear transgene product can only be generated with the addition of an exogenous ligand. However, critical requirements of this system are that the nuclear localization of the transgene product be tightly regulated, that the dosage of the inducing agent remains consistent among experimental animals and that the transgene cassette cannot express in the absence of the inducing agent. We used the Cre ER(T2) cassette, which is regulated by the addition of the estrogen antagonist tamoxifen to determine whether cross-contamination of tamoxifen between animals housed together can be a significant source of spurious results. We found that cross-contamination of exogenous tamoxifen does occur. It occurred in all animals tested. We suggest that the mechanism of contamination is through exposure to tamoxifen in the general environment and/or to coprophagous behavior. These results have important implications for the interpretation and design of experiments that use ‘inducible’ transgenic animals.

Análise histomorfológica e caracterizaçäo dos glicosaminoglicanos do útero de ratas tratadas com estrogênio, progestagênio e raloxifeno / Histomorphological analysis and characterization of glycosaminoglycans of adult castred rat uteri treated with strogen, progesterone and raloxifene

Procurou-se avaliar, neste estudo, sob o ponto de vista histomorfomológico e bioquímico, os efeitos do tratamento com estrogênios conjugados eqüinos (CEE), isolados ou associados ao acetato de medroxiprogesterona (AMP), e do raloxifeno (RAL) sobre o endométrio de ratas adultas ooforectomizadas. Estudaram-se ratas adultas que, 60 dias após serem castradas, foram distribuídas aleatoriamente, em cinco grupos: Grupo I - castrado; Grupo II tratadas com CEE (50 gg/kg, por dia); Grupo III - tratadas com AMP (0,2 mg/kg, por dia); Grupo IV - tratadas com CEE (50 gg/kg, por dia) + AMP (0,2 mg/kg, por dia); Grupo V - tratadas com RAL (3 mg/kg, por dia). A administraçao dos fármacos foi feita por gavagem, sempre no período da manha, durante 28 dias consecutivos. Após esse período os animais foram sacrificados e retiraram-se os úteros, os quais foram mergulhados em formol a 10 por cento. Em seguida, seccionaram-se os corpos uterinos, sendo a porçao média processada para estudo histológico e determinaçao do índice de proliferaçao nuclear (PCNA) dos epitélios superficial e glandular, em microscopia de luz; o restante do material foi processado para detecçao e determinaçao bioquímica dos glicosaminoglicanos. Os resultados mostraram que os EEC isolados apresentaram efeito trófico sobre o endométrio e aumento significante do PCNA; a associaçao de AMP inibiu, em parte, estes efeitos proliferativos. Já nos grupos tratados com AMP ou RAL notamos atrofia endometrial e baixos índices de PCNA. Entretanto, no grupo que recebeu RAL identificamos a presença de eosinófilos no estroma endometrial, o que sugere haver ligeira açao estrogênica. Os glicosaminoglicanos sulfatados (em especial o dermatam sulfato) apresentaram-se em níveis mais elevados nos animais tratados com EEC isolados ou associados ao AMP. Os índices de heparam sulfato mostraram-se baixos nos úteros dos animais tratados com AMP isoladamente ou associado aos EEC. A dosagem de ácido hialurônico nao apresentou alteraçoes entre os vários grupos de estudo. O raloxifeno nao alterou os níveis de glicosaminoglicanos no útero de ratas

Raloxifeno e Osteoporose: revisäo de um novo modulador seletivo do receptor de estrógeno / Raloxifene and osteoporosis: review of the new selective estrogen receptor modulator

Raloxifeno é um modulador seletivo do receptor de estrógeno de segunda geração com ação agonista no osso e sistema cardiovascular e ação antagonista na mama e útero. Sua seletividade tecidual ocorre devido a diversos mecanismos como diferentes receptores de estrógenos, distribuição diferencial destes receptores, diferentes co-fatores protéicos transcricionais e diferente conformação do receptor após ligação de raloxifeno. No osso, raloxifeno aumenta a massa óssea na coluna, fêmur, corpo inteiro, é eficaz em prevenir osteoporose em mulheres na pós-menopausa e reduz a incidência de fraturas vertebrais em 50 por cento em mulheres com osteoporose. No sistema cardiovascular, raloxifeno reduz o colesterol total, LDL-colesterol, fibrinogênio e lipoproteína (a), não tendo efeito nos triglicérides e HDL-colesterol total, porém aumento a subfração HDL-C2. Raloxifeno tem atividade antiproliferativa na mama, não induz mastalgia e uma redução na incidência de novos casos de câncer de mama tem sido demonstrada em mulheres em uso de raloxifeno em grandes estudos clínicos para osteoporose. No útero, raloxifeno não estimula o endométrio e não aumenta a incidência de sangramento vaginal ou carcinoma endometrial. O evento adverso mais comum com raloxifeno são ondas de calor e o mais sério é o tromboembolismo venoso com incidência semelhante à terapia de reposição hormonal. Raloxifeno é uma alternativa para o tratamento e preveção de osteoporose em mulheres na pós-menopausa com evidências de efeitos benéficos seletivos em outros órgãos. Outros benefícios potenciais de raloxifeno como proteção cardiovascular e prevenção de câncer de mama estão sendo investigados em grandes estudos clínicos a longo prazo.

Moduladores selectivos de receptores de estrógeno / Selective estrogen receptor modulators

Los beneficios de la estrogenoterapia en la mujer posmenopáusica son indiscutibles, especialmente por su acción sobre el sistema óseo y cardiovascular. Presentan el inconveniente de estar asociados con un aumento del riesgo de desarrollar cáncer de la mama y endometrio. En esta revisión se analizan nuevos preparados denominados moduladores selectivos de estrógenos (MSRE), que ejercen una acción estrogénica selectiva sobre ciertos sistemas y evitan la estimulación sobre el sistema reproductivo. Se analizan su mecanismo de acción y las perpectivas de desarrollo a futuro