O que acontece dentro da minha cabeça quando penso? Uma análise das representações infantis através do desenho / What happens inside my head when I think? An analysis of children's representations through drawing

As imagens sobre o cérebro têm ganhado relevo no século XXI. Neste trabalho buscamos reconhecer as representações de crianças sobre o funcionamento do pensamento, envolvendo ideias de mente e de cérebro. Este estudo replica uma pesquisa de tradição piagetiana que foi conduzida com a seguinte pergunta norteadora: "O que acontece dentro da minha cabeça quando estou pensando?". Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas e, principalmente, a partir dos desenhos realizados pelas crianças. Participaram da pesquisa 51 crianças, entre quatro e doze anos, de escolas pública e privada sul-rio-grandenses. Os dados coletados foram discutidos em relação ao estudo original e visaram a compreender o pensamento infantil em suas próprias representações sobre o funcionamento da mente e do cérebro.

The images about the brain have been gained prominence in the 21st century. In this work we seek to recognize the representations of children about the functioning of thought, involving ideas of mind and brain. This study replicates a Piagetian tradition research that was conducted with the following guiding question: "What happens inside my head when I am thinking?". The data were collected through interviews and, mainly, from the drawings made by the children. A total of 51 children with the age of four to twelve, from public and private schools from the state of Rio Grande do Sul took part in the study. The collected data were discussed in relation to the original study and aimed to understand children's thinking in their own representations about the functioning of the mind and brain.

Formal Thought Disorder and language impairment in schizophrenia / Alteração formal do pensamento e prejuízo da linguagem na esquizofrenia

Schizophrenia is a psychiatric illness in which disorders of thought content are a prominent feature. The disruption of normal flow of thought, or “Formal Thought Disorder” (FTD), has been traditionally assessed through the content and form of patients’ speech, and speech abnormalities in schizophrenia were considered as a by-product of the disruption in conceptual structures and associative processes related to psychosis. This view has been changed due to increasing evidence that language per se is impaired in schizophrenia, especially its semantic, discursive, and pragmatic aspects. Schizophrenia is currently considered by some authors as a “language related human specific disease” or “logopathy”, and the neuroanatomical and genetic correlates of the language impairment in these patients are under investigation. Such efforts may lead to a better understanding about the pathophysiology of this devastating mental disease. We present some current concepts related to FTD as opposed to primary neurolinguistic abnormalities in schizophrenia.

A esquizofrenia é uma doença psiquiátrica na qual as alterações do conteúdo do pensamento são uma característica marcante. A ruptura do fluxo normal de pensamentos, ou “Alteração Formal do Pensamento” (AFP) é acessada através da forma e conteúdo da fala do paciente. Alterações de fala e linguagem em esquizofrênicos eram consideradas como consequentes à ruptura de seus sistemas conceituais e processos associativos relacionados à psicose. Esta visão alterou-se pelo aumento nas evidências de comprometimento primário da linguagem na esquizofrenia, especialmente em seus aspectos semânticos, discursivos e pragmáticos. A esquizofrenia é atualmente considerada por alguns autores como uma “doença humana específica relacionada à linguagem”, ou “logopatia”. Os correlatos neuroanatômicos e genéticos do prejuízo linguístico nestes pacientes estão sendo investigados. Estes esforços podem levar à maior compreensão da fisiopatologia desta grave doença mental. Nesta revisão, apresentamos conceitos atuais sobre AFP e sua diferenciação das anormalidades linguísticas primárias na esquizofrenia.

Procesamiento emocional en la vejez / Emotional processing in old age

Se cita la etimología de la palabra emoción, la evolución histórica de las diferentes teorías de esta y se profundiza en la Teoría de las emociones de A. Damasio, quien clasifica las emociones como: de fondo, primarias y secundarias, describe el procesamiento emocional, diferencia y define emoción de sentimiento. El planteo es ¿procesan igual las emociones los adultos mayores que los jóvenes?, si fuera así, ¿qué beneficios les traería? Se revisaron trabajos neurobiológicos que muestran un mejor procesamiento de las emociones positivas que de las negativas en la vejez sana a través de estudios con RMCf (Resonancia Magnética de Cerebro funcional). Se cita la Teoría de la selectividad socioemocional. En 1993, L. Carstensen postula que con el envejecimiento se produce un cambio motivacional por el cual las personas jerarquizan las metas, su significado y la optimizacion de su experiencia. Frente a eventos vitales negativos (enfermedades, pérdidas afectivas, etc. las personas mayores siguen manteniendo niveles similares o superiores de bienestar subjetivo es la Paradoja del bienestar en la vejez. Se analizan trabajos sobre emociones y enfermedad de Alzheimer.

The etymology of the word "emotion" is explained as well as its evolution throughout the years. Antonio Damasio's classification of backgrounds, primary and secondary emotions are described along with its differences in moaning with the word "feeling". Two differences in emotional Procedure between older and young adults are mentions. RMCf was shown a better positive emotional processing in old age. From Social Theories, Selectivity, Hierarchical organization of goals, paradox in the elderly, emotional balance, and subjective dimensions and shown. The relationship between these change and life quality during normal and pathological aging as well as Alzheimer's disease is also mentions.

Impaired abstract thinking may discriminate between normal aging and vascular mild cognitive impairment / O pensamento abstrato comprometido pode diferenciar o envelhecimento normal do comprometimento cognitivo leve vascular

OBJECTIVE: Cerebrovascular disease (CVD) is associated with cognitive deficits. This cross-sectional study examines differences among healthy elderly controls and patients with vascular mild cognitive impairment (VaMCI) and vascular dementia (VaD) in performances on CAMCOG subscales. METHOD: Elderly individuals (n=61) were divided into 3 groups, according to cognitive and neuroimaging status: 16 controls, 20 VaMCI and 25 VaD. VaMCI and VaD individuals scored over 4 points on the Hachinski Ischemic Scale. RESULTS: Significant differences in total CAMCOG scores were observed across the three groups (p<0.001). VaD subjects performed worse than those with VaMCI in most CAMCOG subscales (p<0.001). All subscales showed differences between controls and VaD (p<0.001). Performance on abstract thinking showed difference between VaMCI and controls (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: CAMCOG discriminated controls from VaMCI and VaD. Assessment of abstract thinking may be useful as a screening item for diagnosis of VaMCI.

OBJETIVO: A doença cerebrovascular (DCV) associa-se a déficits cognitivos. Este estudo transversal objetiva examinar diferenças entre controles saudáveis idosos e pacientes com comprometimento cognitivo leve vascular (CCLV) e demência vascular (DV) nas subescalas do CAMCOG. MÉTODO: Indivíduos idosos (n=61) foram divididos em 3 grupos, de acordo com o perfil cognitivo e com a neuroimagem: 16 controles, 20 CCLV e 25 DV. Pacientes com CCLV e DV pontuaram acima de 4 pontos no Escore Isquêmico de Hachinski. RESULTADOS: Diferenças significativas foram observadas entre os três grupos no resultado final do CAMCOG. Pacientes com DV obtiveram escores inferiores àqueles dos indivíduos com CCLV em quase todas as subescalas. Todas as subescalas mostraram diferenças entre DV e controles. O desempenho no item pensamento abstrato mostrou diferenças entre CCLV e controles. CONCLUSÃO: O CAMCOG diferenciou controles de pacientes com CCLV e DV. A avaliação do pensamento abstrato pode ser útil para discriminar CCLV de controles.

Un nuevo sesgo en la racionalidad: el impacto de las neurociencias en las teorías filosóficas de la racionalidad humana: [revisión] / A new bias in human rationality: the impact of neurosciences in the philosophical theories of human rationality: [review]

Los psicólogos experimentales creen que la investigación sobre los sesgos en la racionalidad humana permite mostrar las estructuras primigenias de la mente, de manera más clara que el estudio sobre los razonamientos válidos. En esta comunicación indago sobre estos sesgos con el propósito de detectar cuáles son los límites reales del funcionamiento racional humano. En la literatura filosófica tradicionalmente se consideró tres tipos de sesgos, a saber: en el razonamiento lógico, en el uso de las leyes probabilísticas y del “pensamiento cálido”. Tomando como referencia los resultados de los estudios neurofisiológicos de A. Damasio propongo un nuevo tipo de sesgo en la racionalidad humana que aún no ha sido considerado en la literatura filosófica. Al mismo lo denomino sesgos del “pensamiento frío”, pues es consecuencia de la falta de emociones y sentimientos en el proceso de toma de decisiones. A su vez, muestro de qué manera estos estudios neurofisiológicos impactan en el pensamiento filosófico pues permiten contar con nueva evidencia empírica acerca de los sesgos en la racionalidad y posibilitan una evaluación y corrección de algunas teorías de la racionalidad humana.

Experimental psychologists believe that research on human rationality biases allow for a better understanding of the primordial structures of the mind than studies on valid reasoning do. In this communication I inquire into human rationality biases to better understand the true limits of the functioning of human rationality. Three types of human rationality biases were typically considered in the philosophical literature: logical reasoning biases, biases in the use of probabilistic laws and biases related to the “hot-thinking”. Here I propose a new type of bias in human rationality, not considered before in philosophical literature, and taking the results of neurophysiologic studies carried out by A. Damasio as a reference. I refer to this new bias as “cold-thinking”, since it results from the lack of emotions and feelings in the decision making process. In addition, I show how the mentioned neurophysiologic studies impact on philosophical thinking, since the studies provide new empiric evidence on human rationality biases, enabling the assessment and adjustment of human rationality theories.

Positive-Thinking and Life Satisfaction amongst Koreans

PURPOSE: The present study examined the positive-thinking and life satisfaction of the general Korean population. In particular, we examined the role of positive-thinking on participants' life satisfaction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a telephone survey of 409 respondents (194 males, 215 females). The participants provided self-reports on their positive thinking, life satisfaction and demographic information. ReESULTS: The results showed that age, education, occupation, and family income had an influence on positive- thinking as well as life satisfaction in Korea. Specifically, younger respondents and persons with high incomes or higher education degrees were more likely to have higher positive scores and thus higher life satisfaction scores. However, after controlling for the demographic variables, positive thinking significantly affected life satisfaction(R(2) Change=0.170, F= 88.56, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: We provided empirical evidence that positive thinking may indeed play a significant role in life satisfaction. Therefore, positive thinking would offer important direction for the growth of life satisfaction and interventions aiming to remediate the effects of demographic variables on life satisfaction.

Positive-Thinking and Life Satisfaction amongst Koreans

PURPOSE: The present study examined the positive-thinking and life satisfaction of the general Korean population. In particular, we examined the role of positive-thinking on participants' life satisfaction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a telephone survey of 409 respondents (194 males, 215 females). The participants provided self-reports on their positive thinking, life satisfaction and demographic information. ReESULTS: The results showed that age, education, occupation, and family income had an influence on positive- thinking as well as life satisfaction in Korea. Specifically, younger respondents and persons with high incomes or higher education degrees were more likely to have higher positive scores and thus higher life satisfaction scores. However, after controlling for the demographic variables, positive thinking significantly affected life satisfaction(R(2) Change=0.170, F= 88.56, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: We provided empirical evidence that positive thinking may indeed play a significant role in life satisfaction. Therefore, positive thinking would offer important direction for the growth of life satisfaction and interventions aiming to remediate the effects of demographic variables on life satisfaction.

Effect of lateralized epileptic discharges on the thought flow

PURPOSE: Pauses in verbal expression of thought flow in patients with partial epilepsy was studied in order to achieve a best comprehension of brain interhemispheric influences. METHOD: We studied thirty nine patients with partial epileptic seizures and twenty four volunteers (control group). Free association of ideas was used as a method to stablish the thought flow, starting with a stimulus word (subject name) that must be followed by spontaneous and consecutive word-phrase. Patients were instructed to say any thought that came to their minds without any kind of censoring. Subject responses were recorded through a PC keyboard and time intervals (pauses) between each word-phrase were processed by a software developed for this purpose. RESULTS: Time intervals reduction among associations in right lesional group were compared to left lesional, right non-lesional and control groups. An increase of associative time intervals was observed in the right non-lesional group compared to left non-lesional group. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest a possible inhibitory inter-hemispheric function of the right hemisphere modulating verbal expression of the thought flow. Considering the hypothesis of the inter-hemispheric inhibition by the right hemisphere on left hemisphere, we admit that in epileptic patients with right hemispheric lesion there is an attenuation of the inter-hemispheric inhibition and an increase in thought flow, whereas in patients without a lesion but a paroxysmal epileptic activity in right temporal lobe there is an exacerbation of this inhibitory function and consequent reduction in the thought flow

El examen mental / Mental examination

El examen mental abarca una serie de ítemes, muchos de los cuales pueden ser aplicados por el médico general para la evaluación del estado mental de un determinado paciente. Se hace una descripción suscinta de los diferentes estados de conciencia, desde la lucidez hasta el coma, con las características distintivas de cada uno. Se dan algunos ejemplos de preguntas que sirven para determinar la orientación, la atención, la memoria y el juicio. Se define el Coeficiente Intelectual (CI) y la forma de calcularlo, dividiendo la edad mental por la edad cronológica. Se expone una tabla sobre puntaje de coeficiente intelectual y sus denominaciones. Se hacen consideraciones sobre la inteligencia; se definen los diferentes grados de déficit intelectual u oligofrenia; como así mismo sobre el deterioro mental fisiológico y patológico hasta la demencia. Se exponen una serie de preguntas -problemas que hacen reflexionar sobre pensamiento abstracto, significado de proverbios, ideas de conjunto, cálculo e información general. Todo ello podrá servir al clínico para la apreciación, o una aproximación, de la capacidad intelectual de una persona o sospechar un deterioro

The brain/mind complex: an epistemological approach

É ressaltado que o complexo cérebro/mente constitui um sistema monolítico, que funciona com propriedades emergentes em vários níveis de organizaçäo hierárquica, irredutíveis uns aos outros. Os níveis hierárquicos säo pelo menos três (neuronal, funcional e semântico) e funcionam dentro de um esquema interacionista. Do ponto de vista epistemológico, o complexo cérebro/mente utiliza mecanismos lógicos e näo lógicos para lidar com os problemas do dia-a-dia. A lógica é necessária para o pensamento, mas näo é suficiente. Enfase é dada aos mecanismos näo-lógicos, com análise da lógica nebulosa e da heurística que permitem à mente desenvolver estratégias para encontrar soluçöes

Algumas questöes sobre a cisäo e a identificaçäo projetiva nas psicoses / Some questions about of splitting and projective identification in psychosis

No presente trabalho a autora se detém sobre certos aspectos dos distúrbios de pensamento do psicótico, propondo uma abordagem a partir da compreensäo de como funcionam, nestes pacientes, o splitting e a identificaçäo projetiva. Para a autora, a dificuldade destes pacientes é decorrente näo só de um splitting excessivo e das identificaçöes projetivas maciças como, também, do fato de eles näo fazerem a representaçäo mental das ruturas entre as experiências boas e más. Por näo serem representadas as dicotomias, nestes casos, cada experiência será vivida como tendo qualidades absolutas e registrada de modo indiferenciado, ou seja, uma determinada vivência poderá ser usada para expressar uma outra, oposta ou diferente. A autora propöe, ainda, que a identificaçäo projetiva seja entendida como sendo um modo de contacto do analisando com o mundo, como um recurso usado por estes pacientes para recriarem, agora "fora", uma polaridade que lhes permita fazerem diferenciaçöes - diferenciaçöes estas que, nos näo-psicóticos, säo feitas "internamente". Para fazer interpretaçöes aos pacientes psicóticos a autora permitiu-se ser tratada como se fosse "duas" na sessäo, sem integrar estas duas partes criadas pelo analisando

Angularis oculi vein temperature variations related to man's mental activity--preliminary studies.

This preliminary study describes a noninvasive, inexpensive approach to the study of lateralization as related to mental activity. It supports the concept of a thermoregulatory role of blood in cerebral temperature control. Right and left angularis oculi vein temperatures were measured during periods of mental activity and mental rest and both temperature changes were asymmetrical. There was a consistent temperature drop during thinking, with a consistent rise after thinking ceased. Heat loss from superficial vessels of the buccal region and nasal mucosa to the ambient air was evident which caused lowering of the venous blood temperature flowing towards the cavernous sinus. This drop in blood temperature of angularis oculi veins coincided with increased brain metabolism and heat production occasioned by an increase in the level of mental activity and oxygen utilization.