What triggers phenological events in plants under seasonal environments? A study with phylogenetically related plant species in sympatry / O que desencadeia eventos fenológicos em plantas em ambientes sazonais? Um estudo com espécies de plantas filogeneticamente relacionadas e em simpatria

In this study, we evaluated variation in vegetative and reproductive phenological events of four phylogenetically related plant species subjected to a seasonal environment. To this aim, we sampled 15 individuals of each plant species every fortnight for one year, between January and December of 2017. To assess when a given phenophase occurred more intensely in the population, the Fournier intensity index was used and the synchrony of individuals of the sample in a given phenological event was estimated using the activity index. The Rayleigh (Z) test was used to determine whether the phenological events have seasonal distribution. The relationship of abiotic factors (photoperiod, precipitation, relative humidity and temperature) with the intensity of phenophases was evaluated for each plant species using generalized linear models (GLMs). The phenophases of all plants showed a seasonal distribution pattern, as well as variation in synchrony of phenophases and specific sets of abiotic factors significantly influenced their phenophases. New leaves, for example, were produced throughout the seasons, with intense leaf fall in the dry season. Flowering periods, on the other hand, did not overlap. Indeed, species exhibited sequential flowering and asynchronous flowering among individuals. Our results suggest that the phenological patterns of four sympatric plant species are directly linked to climatic variables, but different abiotic factors affected different phenophases.

Neste estudo, avaliamos a variação nos eventos fenológicos vegetativos e reprodutivos de quatro espécies de plantas filogeneticamente relacionadas submetidas a um ambiente sazonal. Para isso, amostramos 15 indivíduos de cada espécie quinzenalmente, pelo período de um ano, entre janeiro e dezembro de 2017. Para avaliar quando uma determinada fenofase ocorreu de modo mais intenso na população foi utilizado o índice de intensidade de Fournier e a sincronia dos indivíduos da amostra em determinado evento fenológico foi estimada utilizando-se o índice de atividade. O teste de Rayleigh (Z) foi usado para determinar se os eventos fenológicos têm distribuição sazonal. A relação dos fatores abióticos (fotoperíodo, precipitação, temperatura e umidade relativa) com a intensidade das fenofases foi avaliada para cada espécie de planta usando modelos lineares generalizados (GLMs). As fenofases de todas as plantas apresentaram um padrão de distribuição sazonal, bem como variação na sincronia das fenofases e conjuntos específicos de fatores abióticos influenciaram significativamente suas fenofases. Folhas novas, por exemplo, foram produzidas ao longo das estações, com intensa queda de folhas na estação seca. Os períodos de floração, por outro lado, não se sobrepuseram. De fato, as espécies exibiram floração sequencial e floração assíncrona entre os indivíduos. Nossos resultados sugerem que os padrões fenológicos das quatro espécies de plantas simpátricas estão diretamente ligados às variáveis climáticas, mas diferentes fatores abióticos afetaram diferentes fenofases.

Diversity of metazoan parasites in fish Triportheus angulatus and Triportheus auritus living in sympatry in the Brazilian Amazon / Diversidade de parasitos metazoários em peixes Triportheus angulatus e Triportheus auritus vivendo em simpatria na Amazônia brasileira

Abstract The aim of this study was to compare the diversity and community structure of metazoan parasites in sympatric populations of Triportheus angulatus and Triportheus auritus in the Jari River basin, in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. All the specimens of T. angulatus and T. auritus examined were infected by Anacanthorus furculus, Anacanthorus pithophallus, Digenea gen. sp., Procamallanus (Spirocamallanus) inopinatus, Rhabdochona acuminata, Contracaecum sp., Ergasilus sp. and Acarina gen. sp. These parasites displayed aggregated or random dispersion. The parasite community in T. angulatus and T. auritus presented a similarity of 78%. The diversity indice and richness of parasite species were greater in T. auritus and there were differences in levels of host parasite infection for some infracommunities. Phyllodistomum spatula occurred only in T. angulatus, while metacercariae of Clinostomum marginatum and Digenea gen. sp.2 occurred only in T. auritus. The species richness of the parasites was influenced by host size, as well as the abundance of some parasite infracommunities. This is the first report of these parasites for T. angulatus and T. auritus, except for P. (S.) inopinatus and Contracaecum sp. for T. angulatus.

Resumo O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a diversidade e comunidade de parasitos metazoários em populações simpátricas de Triportheus angulatus e Triportheus auritus da bacia do Rio Jari, na Amazônia oriental brasileira. Todos os espécimes de T. angulatus e T. auritus examinados estavam infectados por Anacanthorus furculus, Anacanthorus pithophallus, Digenea gen. sp., Procamallanus (Spirocamallanus) inopinatus, Rhabdochona acuminata, Contracaecum sp., Ergasilus sp. e Acarina gen. sp. Esses parasitos apresentaram dispersão agregada ou randômica. A comunidade de parasitos em T. angulatus e T. auritus apresentou uma similaridade de 78%. A diversidade e riqueza de espécies de parasitos foram maiores em T. auritus e houve diferenças nos níveis de infecção parasitária entre os hospedeiros para algumas infracomunidades. Phyllodistomum spatula ocorreu somente em T. angulatus, enquanto metacercárias de Clinostomum marginatum e Digenea gen. sp.2 ocorreram somente em T. auritus. A riqueza de espécies de parasitos foi influenciada pelo tamanho dos hospedeiros, bem como pela abundância de algumas infracomunidades de parasitos. Este é o primeiro relato desses parasitos para T. angulatus e T. auritus, exceto P. (S.) inopinatus e Contracaecum sp. para T. angulatus.

Sympatry influence in the interaction of Trypanosoma cruzi with triatomine

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, is widely distributed in nature, circulating between triatomine bugs and sylvatic mammals, and has large genetic diversity. Both the vector species and the genetic lineages of T. cruzi present a varied geographical distribution. This study aimed to verify the influence of sympatry in the interaction of T. cruzi with triatomines. Methods: The behavior of the strains PR2256 (T. cruzi II) and AM14 (T. cruzi IV) was studied in Triatoma sordida (TS) and Rhodnius robustus (RR). Eleven fifth-stage nymphs were fed by artificial xenodiagnosis with 5.6 × 103 blood trypomastigotes/0.1mL of each T. cruzi strain. Every 20 days, their excreta were examined for up to 100 days, and every 30 days, the intestinal content was examined for up to 120 days, by parasitological (fresh examination and differential count with Giemsa-stained smears) and molecular (PCR) methods. Rates of infectivity, metacyclogenesis and mortality, and mean number of parasites per insect and of excreted parasites were determined. RESULTS: Sympatric groups RR+AM14 and TS+PR2256 showed higher values of the four parameters, except for mortality rate, which was higher (27.3%) in the TS+AM14 group. General infectivity was 72.7%, which was mainly proven by PCR, showing the following decreasing order: RR+AM14 (100%), TS+PR2256 (81.8%), RR+PR2256 (72.7%) and TS+AM14 (36.4%). CONCLUSIONS: Our working hypothesis was confirmed once higher infectivity and vector capacity (flagellate production and elimination of infective metacyclic forms) were recorded in the groups that contained sympatric T. cruzi lineages and triatomine species.

Parasite communities of the predatory fish, Acestrorhynchus falcatus and Acestrorhynchus falcirostris, living in sympatry in Brazilian Amazon / Comunidades de parasitos dos peixes predadores, Acestrorhynchus falcatus and Acestrorhynchus falcirostris, vivendo em simpatria na Amazônia brasileira

Abstract This study investigated the parasite communities of wild Acestrorhynchus falcatus and Acestrorhynchus falcirostris populations living in sympatry in Brazilian Amazon. In these two hosts, a total of 12 parasite species e 1-9 parasite species were found per fish, and 10 of these species are metazoans. Eight species of parasites were common to both host species and four of them exhibited differences in abundance and/or prevalence. Parasite communities of the hosts were taxonomically similar (83%) and composed of both ectoparasites and endoparasites, and characterized by high prevalence and high abundance of endoparasites and an aggregated dispersion pattern. For A. falcirostris, the dominant parasite was Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, and for A. falcatus, it was Piscinoodinium pillulare. Shannon diversity and Berger-Parker dominance were similar for both hosts, while the parasites species richness and evenness showed differences influenced by the ectoparasites species. These two populations of hosts that inhabited the same geographical area had different sizes, but were exposed to the same infective stages, and acquired qualitatively and quantitatively similar endoparasites community, thus indicating that the amounts and types of prey congeneric that they were eating were similar. Therefore, the overlap in the same occurrence area play an important role in the parasite communities to these phylogenetically related hosts.

Resumo Este estudo investigou as comunidades parasitárias de populações naturais de Acestrorhynchus falcatus e Acestrorhynchus falcirostris, peixes piscívoros filogeneticamente relacionados e vivendo em simpatria na Amazônia brasileira. Nessas duas espécies de hospedeiros foram encontradas um total de 12 espécies de parasitos, 1-9 espécies de parasitos por peixe, e desse total de espécies de parasitos, 10 são metazoários. Oito espécies de parasitos foram comuns às duas espécies de hospedeiros e quatro deles apresentaram diferenças na abundância e/ou prevalência. As comunidades parasitárias desses hospedeiros foram taxonomicamente similares (83%) e compostas de ectoparasitos e endoparasitos, mas foram caracterizados por elevada prevalência e elevada abundância de endoparasitos com padrão de dispersão agregado. Para A. falcirostris, Ichthyophthirius multifiliis foi o parasito dominante, mas para A. falcatus foi Piscinoodinium pillulare. O índice de diversidade de Shannon e a dominância de Berger-Parker foram similares para ambos hospedeiros, enquanto a riqueza de espécies de parasitos e uniformidade apresentaram diferenças influenciadas pelas espécies de ectoparasitos. Estas duas populações de hospedeiros congenéricos que habitavam a mesma área geográfica tinham tamanhos diferentes, mas foram expostos aos mesmos estágios infectantes, adquirindo uma comunidade de endoparasitos qualitativa e quantitativamente similar, indicando assim que as quantidades e tipos de presa que eles estavam ingerindo foram similares. Portanto, a sobreposição em uma mesma área de ocorrência desempenhou um papel importante nas comunidades de parasitos para estes hospedeiros relacionados filogeneticamente.

Are similar the parasite communities structure ofTrachelyopterus coriaceus and Trachelyopterus galeatus (Siluriformes: Auchenipteridae) in the Amazon basin? / São similares a estrutura das comunidades de parasitos deTrachelyopterus coriaceus e Trachelyopterus galeatus (Siluriformes: Auchenipteridae) na bacia amazônica?

Abstract The aim of this study was to compare the parasite communities in two sympatric host populations, Trachelyopterus coriaceus andTrachelyopterus galeatus, which were caught in tributary of the Amazon River in Brazil. All the specimens of T. galeatusand T. coriaceus were infected by one or more parasites, such as Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Tripartiella tetramerii, Trichodina nobilis,Cosmetocleithrum striatuli, Contracaecumsp., Cystidicoloides sp., Dadaytremoides parauchenipteri and Gorytocephalus spectabilis. Seven species were common to both host fish, and there were 1-5 parasite species per host. In both hosts, trichodinids were dominant. Aggregate dispersion of ectoparasites and endoparasites was observed, with greater aggregation among endoparasites. Only the ectoparasites species showed differences in intensity and/or abundance. However, the parasite communities of the two hosts were taxonomically similar (99%) and characterized by high prevalence and high abundance of ectoparasites, but with low diversity, prevalence and abundance of endoparasites. Trachelyopterus galeatus, the host with the larger body size, presented greater variation of Brillouin diversity and evenness, while T. coriaceus had higher Berger-Parker dominance values and total numbers of parasites. This first study on these parasites ofT. galeatus and T. coriaceus showed that the life mode, size of the hosts and the availability of infective forms of the parasites were the main factors that influenced the parasite communities structure.

Resumo O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar as comunidades, prevalência, intensidade, abundância e interações parasito-hospedeiro em duas populações de hospedeiros simpatricos, Trachelyopterus coriaceus eTrachelyopterus galeatus de um tributário do sistema do Rio Amazonas, no Brasil. Todos os espécimes de T. galeatus eT. coriaceus estavam infectados por um ou mais parasitos, tais como Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Tripartiella tetramerii, Trichodina nobilis,Cosmetocleithrum striatuli, Contracaecumsp., Cystidicoloides sp., Dadaytremoides parauchenipteri e Gorytocephalus spectabilis. Sete espécies de parasitos foram comuns para ambos os peixes hospedeiros e houve de 1-5 espécies de parasitos por hospedeiro. Em ambos os hospedeiros houve dominância de espécies de tricodinídeos. A dispersão dos ectoparasitos e endoparasitos foi agregada, mas a maior agregação foi de endoparasitos. Somente espécies de ectoparasitos mostraram diferenças na intensidade e/ou abundância. Entretanto, as comunidades parasitárias dos dois hospedeiros foram taxonomicamente semelhante (99%) e caracterizada por alta prevalência e abundância de ectoparasitos, mas com baixa diversidade, prevalência e abundância de endoparasitos. Trachelyopterus galeatus, com maior tamanho corporal, apresentou maior variação da diversidade Brillouin e uniformidade, enquanto T. coriaceus teve maiores valores de dominância de Berger-Parker e número total de parasitos. Este primeiro estudo sobre estes parasitos de T.galeatus e T. coriaceus mostrou que o modo de vida, tamanho dos hospedeiros e disponibilidade de formas infectantes de parasitos foram os principais fatores que influenciaram a estrutura das comunidades dos parasitos encontrados.

Acidobacteria appear to dominate the microbiome of two sympatric Caribbean Sponges and one Zoanthid

BACKGROUND: Marine invertebrate-associated microbial communities are interesting examples of complex symbiotic systems and are a potential source of biotechnological products. RESULTS: In this work, pyrosequencing-based assessment from bacterial community structures of sediments, two sponges, and one zoanthid collected in the Mexican Caribbean was performed. The results suggest that the bacterial diversity at the species level is higher in the sediments than in the animal samples. Analysis of bacterial communities' structure showed that about two thirds of the bacterial diversity in all the samples belongs to the phyla Acidobacteria and Proteobacteria. The genus Acidobacteriumappears to dominate the bacterial community in all the samples, reaching almost 80% in the sponge Hyrtios. CONCLUSIONS: Our evidence suggests that the sympatric location of these benthonic species may lead to common bacterial structure features among their bacterial communities. The results may serve as a first insight to formulate hypotheses that lead to more extensive studies of sessile marine organisms' microbiomes from the Mexican Caribbean.

Structural adaptations of two sympatric epiphytic orchids (Orchidaceae) to a cloudy forest environment in rocky outcrops of Southeast Brazil / Adaptaciones estructurales de dos orquídeas epífitas simpátricas (Orchidaceae) en un bosque nuboso de un campo rupestre del sureste de Brasil

The survival of plants in epiphytic environments depends on vegetative adaptations capable to defraud different stresses. Based on the structural diversity of the Orchidaceae, the current study has the objective of relating the anatomical structure of Dichaea cogniauxiana and Epidendrum secundum with the distinct environments where they live. It was expected that, despite structural similarities as strategies for resource acquisition, some peculiar variations related to the distinct light microenvironments (inside or in the edge of the nebular forest, near to “campo rupestre” area) might be found. Leaves and roots of both species were collected in a nebular forest located at a “campo rupestre” area at Serra da Piedade, Brazil), in January and February 2005. D. cogniauxiana is adhered to trunks, in sites with high atmospheric humidity and shaded, while E. secundum is located at the edge of the nebular forest, in more luminous sites. The leaves of E. secundum had thicker cuticle and higher number of stomata per area than those of D. cogniauxiana, characteristics coherent with their distinct pattern of exhibition to sun light. The suprastomatic chambers formed by the thicker cuticle may function as a barrier of resistance to water evaporation. The succulence of the leaves of E. secundum propitiates organic acids storage at night, and the storage of starch may be involved in PEP-carboxylase metabolism, both propitiating CAM mechanism. Roots with larger number of cell layers of the velamen, and specialized thick walled cortical cells (both in E. secundum) help water absorption and indicate better adaptation to an environment with intense solar radiation and a probable higher water deficit. The remarkable cell wall thickening of E. secundum exodermis can confer more efficient protection against the excess of transpiration at the border of the nebular forest. On the other hand, besides D. cogniauxiana be epiphyte, it is in a low position - in a shaded environment and with high relative humidity. Its thin thickened velamen permits the entrance of the low available light, and photosynthesis, producing oxygen and helping to avoid hypoxia condition. As features registered for D. cogniauxiana and E. secundum roots, we can depict the velamen, distinct exodermis and endodermis, and specialized thick walled cortical cells as characteristic of epiphytic plants.

La sobrevivencia de las plantas epífitas a su ambiente depende de las adaptaciones vegetativas que les permiten afrontar diferentes tipos de estrés. Basado en la diversidad estructural de las Orchidaceae, el presente estudio tiene por objetivo relatar la estructura anatómica de Dichaea cogniauxiana y Epidendrum secundum con relación a los distintos ambientes donde viven. Hojas y raíces fueron recolectados en un bosque nuboso de un campo rupestre en la Serra da Piedade, Brasil. Dichaea cogniauxiana está adherida a los troncos, en sitios con alta humedad atmosférica y sombra, mientras que E. secundum está localizada en el margen del bosque nebular, en sitios más iluminados. Las hojas de E. secundum tienen una cutícula más gruesa y un mayor número de estomas por área que las de D. cogniauxiana, características coherentes con los diferentes patrones de exhibición a la luz del sol. Las cámaras supraestomáticas formadas por la cutícula pueden funcionar como una barrera de resistencia a la evaporación del agua. La suculencia de las hojas de E. secundum propicia el almacenamiento de ácidos orgánicos por la noche, y el almacenamiento de almidón puede estar implícito en el metabolismo de la PEP-carboxilasa. Las raíces con mayor velamen y especializadas paredes gruesas de las células corticales (ambas en E. secundum) ayudan a la absorción e indican una mejor adaptación al ambiente con intensa radiación solar y probable alto déficit de agua. El engrosamiento de la pared celular en la exodermis de E. secundum puede conferir una protección más eficaz contra el exceso de transpiración en el margen del bosque nebular. Por otra parte, D. cogniauxiana además de ser epífita, está en una posición baja, en un ambiente sombreado y con una alta humedad relativa. Su velamen delgado permite la entrada de la baja luz disponible y la fotosíntesis, produciendo oxígeno que ayuda a evitar la condición hipóxica.

A new dark-dotted species of Hypostomus Lacépède (Siluriformes: Loricariidae) from rio Paraguaçu, Bahia State, Brazil

A new species of Hypostomus Lacépède is described from the rio Paraguaçu basin, Bahia State, Brazil. The new species is distinguished from its congeners by having black and conspicuous dots on a pale background, which are similar in size on the head, trunk, and fins, along with ventral surface of head and abdomen naked or the latter plated exclusively on its anterior portion, absence of ridges on head and trunk, and caudal-fin lobes relatively similar in length. The new species further differs from the sympatric H. chrysostiktos by having seven branched dorsal-fin rays instead of 10-11 and represents the eleventh siluriform species endemic to the rio Paraguaçu basin.

Uma espécie nova de Hypostomus Lacépède é descrita da bacia do rio Paraguaçu, estado da Bahia, Brasil. A espécie nova distingue-se de suas congêneres por apresentar corpo com manchas pretas e conspícuas sobre fundo claro de tamanho semelhante no tronco, cabeça e nadadeiras, além da superfície ventral da cabeça e abdômen nus ou apenas porção anterior do abdômen coberto por placas, ausência de quilhas na cabeça e no corpo e lobos da nadadeira caudal relativamente similares no comprimento. A espécie nova difere ainda da simpátrica H. chrysostiktos por ter sete raios ramificados na nadadeira dorsal ao invés de 10-11 e representa a décima primeira espécie de siluriforme endêmica da bacia do rio Paraguaçu.

Molecular analysis of an odorant-binding protein gene in two sympatric species of Lutzomyia longipalpis s.l.

Lutzomyia longipalpis s.l. is the main vector of American visceral leishmaniasis (AVL) and occurs as a species complex. DNA samples from two Brazilian sympatric species that differ in pheromone and courtship song production were used to analyse molecular polymorphisms in an odorant-binding protein ( obp29 ) gene. OBPs are proteins related to olfaction and are involved in activities fundamental to survival, such as foraging, mating and choice of oviposition site. In this study, the marker obp29 was found to be highly polymorphic in Lu. longipalpis s.l. , with no fixed differences observed between the two species. A pairwise fixation index test indicated a moderate level of genetic differentiation between the samples analysed.

Evidencia morfológica de hibridación entre las subespecies de Ramphocelus flammigerus (Passeriformes: Thraupidae) en Colombia / Morphological evidence of hybridization between Ramphocelus flammigerus subspecies (Passeriformes: Thraupidae) in Colombia

Morphological evidence of hybridization between Ramphocelus flammigerus subspecies (Passeriformes: Thraupidae) in Colombia. Habitat modifications such as deforestation and the increase of agricultural activities, have led to uncommon faunal interactions. In Colombia, this condition have caused the secondary contact of subspecies of Ramphocelus flammigerus populations from Cauca valley and the Pacific coast; and some specimens with rumps of intermediate colors of the subspecies have been found and are thought as hybrids. The objective of this study was to assess the presence of morphological evidence that may suggest hybridization and may explain the origin of individuals with intermediate coloration. We predict that if subspecies hybridize, they will be more similar in morphology when coexisting than when separated. Alternatively, coexisting subspecies might diverge in sympatry, because of selection to reduce competition for resources (character displacement). For this, a survey in 15 localities was undertaken: 10 allopatric areas (five for each subspecies), and five sympatric areas. Mist nets were used to capture individuals and a total of seven morphological characters were measured. To identify the patterns of morphological variation, we compared morphology of subspecies, sympatric and allopatric populations and individuals of intermediate colors. Consequently, we performed discriminant analysis and test for differences between groups by using 95% confidence intervals for log-ratio tests. A total of 112 individuals were captured (46 intermediate-colored individuals, 20 R. f. flammigerus, and 46 R. f. icteronotus. Discriminant analyses showed that subspecies were well differentiated, and intermediate individuals overlapped with them. Log-ratio test, based on Mahalanobis distances, showed that intermediate individuals were morphologically more similar to both subspecies than subspecies themselves. In addition, log-ratio tests showed that subspecies sympatric populations were similar but allopatric ones were different, and that individuals of intermediate colors were more similar to sympatric than to allopatric populations of the two subspecies. Therefore, morphological evidence supports the predictions of a hybridization hypothesis among the subspecies of R. flammigerus. In conclusion, the analysis of morphological variation in R. flammigerus suggests that hybridization between subspecies is occurring and that a process of genetic introgression is probably in progress.

Las modificaciones de los hábitats naturales, tales como la deforestación y el incremento de las actividades agrícolas, han conducido a interacciones faunísticas inusuales. En Colombia, esta situación ha generado el contacto secundario entre las poblaciones de las subespecies de Ramphocelus flammigerus del Valle del Cauca y de la costa Pacífica; y se han encontrado individuos con rabadillas de colores intermedios entre las subespecies que se han catalogado como híbridos. El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar si existe evidencia morfológica que sugiera hibridación y que pueda explicar el origen de los individuos de coloración intermedia. Con este fin, se obtuvieron muestras de 15 localidades; 10 zonas alopátricas (cinco por cada subespecie) y cinco zonas simpátricas. Para la captura de individuos se utilizaron redes de niebla y fueron tomados siete caracteres morfológicos. Asimismo, se predijo que si las subespecies están hibridando, las mismas, podrían ser morfológicamente más similares cuando coexisten que cuando se encuentran separadas. Alternativamente, cuando las subespecies coexisten, éstas pueden divergir en simpatría debido a presiones selectivas para reducir la competencia por recursos (desplazamiento de caracteres). Para identificar los patrones de variación morfológica, se comparó la morfología de las subespecies, de poblaciones simpátricas y alopátricas de ambas subespecies y de los individuos de cloración intermedia. Consecuentemente, se realizó un análisis discriminante y se evaluaron las diferencias entre los grupos con la utilización de intervalos de confianza del 95% para las relaciones logarítmicas. Y se capturaron un total de 112 individuos (46 de coloraciones intermedias, 20 R. f. flammigerus y 46 R. f. icteronotus). Los análisis discriminantes mostraron que las subespecies se diferencian entre ellas y que los individuos de coloraciones intermedias se traslapan con estas. Las relaciones logarítmicas, basadas en las distancias cuadradas de Mahalanobis, mostraron que los individuos intermedios fueron más similares morfológicamente a ambas subespecies que las subespecies entre ellas. Adicionalmente, se encontró que las poblaciones simpátricas de ambas subespecies son similares pero las poblaciones alopátricas son diferentes, y que los individuos de coloraciones intermedias son más similares a las poblaciones simpátricas de las dos subespecies que a las alopátricas. Por lo tanto, la evidencia morfológica evidencia las predicciones derivadas de la hipótesis de hibridación entre las subespecies de R. flammigerus. En conclusión, el análisis morfológico de la variación en R. flammigerus sugiere que se presenta hibridación entre las subespecies y que probablemente está en progreso un proceso de introgresión genética.

Molecules, wing pattern and distribution: an approach to species delimitation in the "loxurina group" (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Penaincisalia)

The wide range of morphological variations in the "loxurina group" makes taxa identification difficult, and despite several reviews, serious taxonomical confusion remains. We make use of DNA data in conjunction with morphological appearance and available information on species distribution to delimit the boundaries of the "loxurina" group species previously established based on morphology. A fragment of 635 base pairs within the mtDNA gene cytochrome oxidase I (COI) was analysed for seven species of the "loxurina group". Phylogenetic relationships among the included taxa were inferred using maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood methods. Penaincisalia sigsiga (Bálint et al), P. cillutincarae (Draudt), P. atymna (Hewitson) and P. loxurina (C. Felder & R. Felder) were easily delimited as the morphological, geographic and molecular data were congruent. Penaincisalia ludovica (Bálint & Wojtusiak) and P. loxurina astillero (Johnson) represent the same entity and constitute a sub-species of P. loxurina. However, incongruence among morphological, genetic, and geographic data is shown in P. chachapoya (Bálint & Wojtusiak) and P. tegulina (Bálint et al). Our results highlight that an integrative approach is needed to clarify the taxonomy of these neotropical taxa, but more genetic and geographical studies are still required.